Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

The OT employs thirty-five different words for birds (both wild and domestic), but the identification of these words with known species has proved to be very difficult. Like other words for animals, terminology for birds often is employed in personal names (e.g., Jonah, Oreb, Zippor, Zipporah). There is significant evidence for fowling practices in ancient Israel, usually by means of nets and snares (Pss. 124:7; 140:5; Prov. 6:5; 7:23; Lam. 3:52; Hos. 7:12; Amos 3:5). Small birds and chickens are occasionally even depicted on Iron AgeII (1000586 BC) seals and vessels from sites such as el-Jib (Gibeon) and Tell en-Nasbeh (Mizpah).

Like other animals in the Bible, birds are depicted as agents of God. Divine agency is especially evident in instances such as the ravens feeding Elijah (1Kings 17:4–6) and the dove bringing an olive leaf to Noah (Gen. 8:11). The Bible also employs bird-related imagery such as in descriptions of divine judgment (Prov. 30:17; Jer. 12:9). Birds may also serve as ominous signs of impending judgment (Hos. 8:1). God’s “wings” can offer both healing (Mal. 4:2 KJV, RSV) and protection (Ruth 2:12; Pss. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 61:4; 63:7; 91:4). The metaphor of the soul or spirit as a bird is referenced in the description of the Holy Spirit descending like a dove (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32). The observation that birds “do not sow or reap” is employed as an image of worry-free living (Luke 12:24; cf. Job 38:41; Ps. 147:9). Jesus’ reference to “when the rooster crows” (Mark 13:35) is not strictly literal but rather refers to a watch of the night: the quarter of the night after midnight.

The prominence of sacrificial birds (especially doves and pigeons) in ritual literature indicates that they were likely raised for such purposes in ancient Israel. All birds could be eaten except those listed as unclean in Lev. 11:13–19 (twenty species) and Deut. 14:12–18 (twenty-one species). Generally speaking, birds of prey and those that feed on carrion or fish were considered unclean. Birds often served as food for the poor (Matt. 10:29–31; Luke 12:6–7). Poor people could offer birds as a substitute for expensive livestock (Lev. 5:7; 12:8; 14:21–22; cf. Luke 2:24), while the poorest of the poor were permitted to bring grain (Lev. 5:11). Finally, in one purgation ritual a live bird is used to carry away impurities (Lev. 14:52–53; cf. 16:22).

Headgear signifying honor, victory, power, or authority. A crown was worn by monarchs in the ancient world to designate their royal power, often including a golden headband with precious stones in it, as well as a turban.

There are two important types of crowns in the OT: the priestly and the royal. A royal crown first appears with Saul (2Sam. 1:10) and is worn by monarchs after him, including David (2Sam. 12:30; 1Chron. 20:2; see also Pss. 21:3; 132:18) and Joash (2Kings 11:12; 2Chron. 23:11). The book of Exodus depicts a crownlike turban to which is affixed a golden “sacred emblem” bearing the inscription “Holy to the Lord,” which is to be worn by the high priest (Exod. 28:3637; 29:6; see also, e.g., 39:30; Lev. 8:9).

Zechariah 6:11–14 looks to a future messiah, “the Branch,” who will be both priest and king, thus wearing a priestly and royal crown. Before his crucifixion, Jesus’ tormentors place on his head a mock crown made of thorns (Matt. 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2, 5). In the book of Revelation both godly and satanic figures wear crowns: the elders in heaven (4:4, 10), the rider of the white horse (6:2), the locusts from the Abyss (9:7), the woman clothed with the sun (12:1), the dragon and the beast (12:3; 13:1), the one “like a son of man” (14:14), and Christ himself (19:12).

The second king of Israel (r. 1010970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.

Human kingship is a late development in Israel, but a number of ancient texts anticipate the establishment of the institution (Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20) and specifically the rise of a king from Judah (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:17). Thus, it is surprising that the first king of Israel is not from Judah, but from Benjamin. When the people ask Samuel for a king, he anoints Saul (1Sam. 8–12), who proves to be a tremendous disappointment. He forfeits the establishment of his dynasty when he shows a lack of confidence in God by rashly offering prebattle sacrifices (13:13–14). God then rejects Saul as king because he does not execute God’s full judgment against the Amalekites as he knows he should (15:23).

Eventually Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1Sam. 31–2Sam. 1).

Even with Saul out of the way, David’s rise to kingship is not easy. He is immediately crowned king of Judah (2Sam. 2:1–7), but the northern tribes choose to follow Ish-Bosheth, the son of Saul. War erupts between the two kingdoms. Eventually, though, the powerful general Abner abandons his support of Saul’s son, sealing the end of that dynasty. Ish-Bosheth is killed by his own men, and soon David becomes king over all Israel (5:1–5).

David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (2Sam. 5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2Sam. 6).

The David narrative reaches its apex when God enters into a covenant with him that establishes his dynasty (2Sam. 7; 1Chron. 17). After David dies, his son will succeed him, and indeed his dynasty lasts for many hundreds of years (see below).

David is a good king, but not a perfect king. A turning point in his reign comes in 2Sam. 11. Up to this point, David has been content with what God has given him. He does not grasp for anything that does not belong to him. However, when he sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing, he sends messengers to bring her to his house, where the two have sexual intercourse and she becomes pregnant. In an attempt to conceal this sin of adultery, he orders the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. Thus, he adds the crime of murder to that of adultery.

David thinks that the sin is secret, but nothing is hidden from God, who sends his prophet Nathan to confront David (2Sam. 12; cf. Ps. 51). The difference between Saul and David is not that the latter is perfect but rather that David, as opposed to Saul, repents when he sins. Thus, God allows his reign to continue. Even so, David feels the consequences of his sin. First, the son that Bathsheba bears from her illicit union with David is struck with illness and dies. And ever afterward, David’s family life is troubled, with great impact on the political life of Israel. Son is pitted against son (Amnon and Absalom [2Sam. 13]), as well as son against father (Absalom and David [2Sam. 15–18]). Absalom temporarily deposes his father from the throne, but David eventually regains the kingship, though at the cost of the heartbreaking loss of his son.

Even at the very end, there is conflict within David’s house. When David has grown old, another son, Adonijah, attempts to take the throne, with support from powerful people such as Joab and Abiathar. At the instigation of Bathsheba and Nathan, however, David places the son of his choosing, Solomon, on the throne (1Kings 1). David then dies after a reign of forty-one years, seven in Hebron and the rest over all Israel (1Kings 2:10–12).

David’s greatest legacy is the dynasty that bears his name. Beginning with Solomon, however, his successors do not continue his spiritual legacy. Although a number of kings do some good, only Hezekiah (r. 727–698 BC) and Josiah (r. 639–609 BC) are given unqualified approval. Eventually, the Davidic rule comes to an end in Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians (586 BC). But God is not done with his redemptive purposes, and his promise to David is that he will have a ruler on the throne “forever” (2Sam. 7:16). The NT recognizes that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of this promise. He is the greater son of David, the one who is the Christ or Messiah, the anointed king. Jesus is the one who reigns forever in heaven. The life and the rule of David foreshadow the messianic rule of Jesus Christ.

Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).

Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).

The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).

In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).

The ancient Jewish calendar was tied to the phases of the moon, with the months beginning with each new moon. The new moon was celebrated with multiple offerings (Num. 28:1115). Festival days were calculated from the new moon.

The moon figures prominently in prophecy. At the day of the Lord, the sun and the moon will be darkened (e.g., Joel 2:10). While most ancient Near Eastern cultures worshiped the moon, Israel was forbidden such worship (Deut. 4:19).

The account of the moon’s creation recorded in Gen. 1:16 does not mention the moon by name. This is in keeping with the general tone of the creation story, wherein God, almost incidentally, creates the things that were worshiped by contemporary cultures.

In the OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers to humanity in general or to a specific individual. In Ezekiel, for instance, God addresses the prophet himself as “son of man,” possibly indicating his human status compared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique status as God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.

One of the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7 because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in the Gospel tradition. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’s vision (7:114), while the second half contains its interpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13). This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are “like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and “like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesome that it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom (7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient world empires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man” has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthly Israel, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed with authority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people of the Most High” receive in verse27. In this way, the “one like a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthly saints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly being such as the archangel Gabriel (9:21) or Michael (10:13; 12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenly counterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battle on its behalf.

In the NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospels and, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus), is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. Unlike in Daniel, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with the definite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a known figure. In first-century Judaism many Jews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as savior and judge. The OT provides the most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in the Gospels.

The Son of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories: earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings. Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Son of Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in 2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel the Son of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance in Yahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in the Gospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesus also predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raised again. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur three times (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight of Jesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the little horn (v.21). If the “one like a son of man” represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonable that he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text of Daniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference to Dan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62 the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to his vindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus in Mark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicial responsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33). Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for the return of the Son of Man (12:39–40; 17:22–37; 21:34–36).

Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly temple functioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev. 1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud” (14:14–16).

The word “star” is used in the Bible to refer to any bright point of light in the night sky; no linguistic distinction is made between stars and planets (cf. 2Pet. 1:19; Rev. 2:28; 22:16).

Stars often are used to illustrate the scope of God’s promises (Gen. 15:5; 22:17; 26:4; Deut. 10:22). They were used throughout the ancient Near East to represent the king, an association also evident in the OT (Num. 24:17; Isa. 14:12). Stars also were named, and some were objects of worship, a practice condemned in Israel (Amos 5:26; cf. Deut. 4:19). Stars were subject to study by foreign sages who sought to predict the future based on their observations, although their efficacy is denied (Isa. 47:13). Nonetheless, the arrival of the Messiah is heralded by a star in the service of its creator (Matt. 2:210). The falling (Rev. 6:13) and the darkening (Joel 2:10; 3:15) of stars are used to depict the coming of the day of the Lord in judgment.

The Bible has much to say about works, and an understanding of the topic is important because works play a role in most religions. In the most generic sense, “works” refers to the products or activities of human moral agents in the context of religious discussion. God’s works are frequently mentioned in Scripture, and they are always good. His works include creation (Gen. 2:23; Isa. 40:28; 42:5), sustenance of the earth (Ps. 104; Heb. 1:3), and redemption (Exod. 6:6; Ps. 111:9; Rom. 8:23). Human works, therefore, should be in alignment with God’s works, though obviously of a different sort. Works in the Bible usually reflect a moral polarity: good or evil, righteous or unrighteous, just or unjust. The context of the passage often determines the moral character of the works (e.g., Isa. 3:10–11; 2Cor. 11:15).

Important questions follow from the existence of works and their moral quality. Do good works merit God’s favor or please him? Can good works save at the time of God’s judgment? When people asked Jesus, “What must we do to do the works God requires?” he answered, “The work of God is this: to believe in the one he has sent” (John 6:28–29). Without faith it is impossible to please God (Heb. 11:6). The people from the OT commended in Heb. 11 did their works in the precondition of faith. Explicitly in the NT and often implicitly in the OT, faith is the condition for truly good works. God elects out of his mercy, not out of human works (Rom. 9:12, 16; Titus 3:5; cf. Rom. 11:2). Works not done in faith, even if considered “good” by human standards, are not commendable to God, since all humankind is under sin (Rom. 3:9) and no person is righteous or does good (Rom. 3:10–18; cf. Isa. 64:6). Works cannot save; salvation is a gift to be received by faith (Eph. 2:8–9; 2Tim. 1:9; cf. Rom. 4:2–6). Even works of the Mosaic law are not salvific (Rom. 3:20, 27–28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2; 5:4). Good works follow from faith (2Cor. 9:8; Eph. 2:10; 1Thess. 1:3; James 2:18, 22; cf. Acts 26:20). The works of those who have faith will be judged, but this judgment appears to be related to rewards, not salvation (Matt. 16:27; Rom. 2:6; 2Cor. 5:10; cf. Rom. 14:10; 1Cor. 3:13–15).

Headgear signifying honor, victory, power, or authority. Acrown was worn by monarchs in the ancient world to designate theirroyal power, often including a golden headband with precious stonesin it, as well as a turban.

Thereare two important types of crowns in the OT: the priestly and theroyal. A royal crown first appears with Saul (2 Sam. 1:10) andis worn by monarchs after him, including David (2 Sam. 12:30;1 Chron. 20:2; see also Pss. 21:3; 132:18) and Joash (2 Kings11:12; 2 Chron. 23:11). Jeremiah 13:18 warns of a day when theroyal crowns of Judah will be taken away, signifying the monarchy’sfall from power. Esther wears a Persian royal crown (Esther 1:11;2:17), as does Mordecai (8:15).

Thebook of Exodus depicts a crownlike turban to which is affixed agolden “sacred emblem” bearing the inscription “Holyto the Lord,” which is to be worn by the high priest (Exod.28:36–37; 29:6; see also, e.g., 39:30; Lev. 8:9).

Zechariah6:11–14 looks to a future messiah, “the Branch,”who will be both priest and king, thus wearing a priestly and royalcrown. Before his crucifixion, Jesus’ tormentors place on hishead a mock crown made of thorns (Matt. 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2,5). In the book of Revelation both godly and satanic figures wearcrowns: the elders in heaven (4:4, 10), the rider of the white horse(6:2), the locusts from the Abyss (9:7), the woman clothed with thesun (12:1), the dragon and the beast (12:3; 13:1), the one “likea son of man” (14:14), and Christ himself (19:12).

Crownssymbolize human honor (Ps. 8:5; Prov. 4:9; Heb. 2:7, 9) and kinglypower (Ps. 89:39), as well as the loss of such glory (Job 19:9; Ezek.21:26) and its ultimate renewal in eternal life (1 Pet. 5:4).Similarly, crowns often represent eternal salvation (Ps. 149:4; James1:12; Rev. 2:10). Paul even calls his converts his “crown”(Phil. 4:1; 1 Thess. 2:19). The figure of a crownlike garland,the prize for victory in Greco-Roman athletic games, signifies theChristian’s final enjoyment of eternal bliss (1 Cor. 9:25;2 Tim. 2:5; 4:8). Crowns portray divine blessings, including joy(Isa. 35:10; 51:11), love (Ps. 103:4), and beauty, the last of whichsymbolizes divine restoration after judgment (Isa. 61:3). God is evenportrayed as the crown of his people (Isa. 28:5). In addition, acrown stands for several human features, such as wealth (Prov. 14:24)and pride (Isa. 28:1, 3).

The word “dominion” translates several terms thatexpress power, mastery, rulership, and authority. As the cosmic king,God has deputized humankind as his image bearer to “rule over”creation (Gen. 1:26, 28; Ps. 8:5–6). Human rulership isintended to be a stewardship for God, one of development, notdomination.

Dominionis also found in political might (1Kings 4:24), sometimes inthe possession of Israel’s enemies (Neh. 9:28), and in God’schosen king over creation (Ps. 72:8). There is also the messianicrestoration of dominion (Mic. 4:8), dominion among supernaturalbeings (Eph. 1:21), and the ultimate dominion of Christ over all(Col. 1:15–20). The rule of sin and death is contrasted withthe dominion of grace and resurrection (Rom. 5:14–21; 6:9–14).God’s dominion is his “sovereignty,” both increation and redemption (Dan. 4:34; 1Pet. 4:11; Jude 25).

For Christians, God is the creator of the cosmos and theredeemer of humanity. He has revealed himself in historicalacts—namely, in creation, in the history of Israel, andespecially in the person and work of Jesus Christ. There is only oneGod (Deut. 6:4); “there is no other” (Isa. 45:5). Because“God is spirit” (John 4:24), he must reveal himselfthrough various images and metaphors.

Imageryof God

God’scharacter and attributes are revealed primarily through the use ofimagery, the best and most understandable way to describe themysterious nature of God. Scripture employs many images to describeGod’s being and character. Some examples follow here.

Godis compared to the father who shows compassion and love to hischildren (Ps. 103:13; Rom. 8:15). The father image is also used bythe prophets to reveal God’s creatorship (Isa. 64:8). Jesuspredominantly uses the language of “Father” in referenceto God (Mark 8:38; 13:32; 14:36), revealing his close relationshipwith the Father. God is also identified as the king of Israel evenbefore the Israelites have a human king (1Sam. 10:19).

ThePsalter exalts Yahweh as the king, acknowledging God’ssovereignty and preeminence (Pss. 5:2; 44:4; 47:6–7; 68:24;74:12; 84:3; 95:3; 145:1). God is metaphorically identified as theshepherd who takes care of his sheep, his people, to depict hisnature of provision and protection (Ps. 23:1–4). The image ofthe potter is also employed to describe the nature of God, whocreates his creatures according to his will (Jer. 18:6; Rom.9:20–23). In Hos. 2:4–3:5 God is identified as thelong-suffering husband of the adulterous wife Israel. In the settingof war, God is depicted as the divine warrior who fights against hisenemy (Exod. 15:3).

Godis also referred to as advocate (Isa. 1:18), judge (Gen. 18:25), andlawgiver (Deut. 5:1–22). The image of the farmer is alsofrequently adopted to describe God’s nature of compassionatecare, creation, providence, justice, redemption, sanctification, andmore (e.g., Isa. 5:1–7; John 15:1–12). God is oftenreferred to as the teacher (Exod. 4:15) who teaches what to do, asdoes the Holy Spirit in the NT (John 14:26). The Holy Spirit isidentified as the counselor, the helper, the witness, and the guide(John 14:16, 26; 15:26). God is often metaphorically compared tovarious things in nature, such as rock (Ps. 18:2, 31, 46), light (Ps.27:1), fire (Deut. 4:24; 9:3), lion (Hos. 11:10), and eagle (Deut.32:11–12). In particular, the Davidic psalms employ many imagesin nature—rock, fortress, shield, horn, and stronghold (e.g.,Ps. 18:2)—to describe God’s perfect protection.

Last,anthropomorphism often is employed to describe God’sactivities. Numerous parts of the human body are used to speak ofGod: face (Num. 6:25–26), eyes (2Chron. 16:9), mouth(Deut. 8:3), ears (Neh. 1:6), nostrils (Exod. 15:8), hands (Ezra7:9), arms (Deut. 33:27), fingers (Ps. 8:3), voice (Exod. 15:26),shoulders (Deut. 33:12), feet (Ps. 18:9), and back (Exod. 33:21–22).

Namesand Attributes of God

TheOT refers to God by many names. One of the general terms used forGod, ’el (which probably means “ultimate supremacy”),often appears in a compound form with a qualifying word, as in ’el’elyon (“God Most High”), ’el shadday (“GodAlmighty”), and ’el ro’i (“the God who seesme” or “God of my seeing”). These descriptive namesreveal important attributes of God and usually were derived from thepersonal experiences of the people of God in real-life settings;thus, they do not describe an abstract concept of God.

Themost prominent personal name of God is yahweh (YHWH), which istranslated as “the Lord” in most English Bibles. At theburning bush in the wilderness of Horeb, God first revealed to Moseshis personal name in sentence form: “I am who I am”(Exod. 3:13–15). Though debated, the divine name “YHWH”seems to originate from an abbreviated form of this sentence. Yahweh,who was with Moses and his people at the time of exodus, is the Godwho was with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. According to Jesus’testimony, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the Godof Jacob” is identified as the God “of the living”(Matt. 22:32). Hence, the name “Yahweh” is closely tiedto God’s self-revelation as the God of presence and life. (Seealso Names of God.)

Manyof God’s attributes are summarized in Exod. 34:6–7: “TheLord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger,abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining love to thousands,and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin. Yet he does not leavethe guilty unpunished; he punishes the children and their childrenfor the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation.”Below are further explanations of some of the representativeattributes of God.

Holiness.The moral excellence of God is the attribute that underlies all otherattributes. Thus, all God’s attributes can be modified by theadjective holy: holy love, holy justice, holy mercy, holyrighteousness, holy compassion, holy wisdom, and so forth. God is theonly supremely holy one (1Sam. 2:2; Rev. 15:4). God’sname is also holy; those who profane God’s name are condemnedas guilty (Exod. 20:7; Lev. 22:32). God is depicted as the one whohas concern for his holy name, which the Israelites profaned amongthe nations; God actively seeks to restore the holiness of hisdefiled name (Ezek. 36:21–23). God’s holiness is revealedby his righteous action (Isa. 5:16). Not only is God holy, but alsohe expects his people to be holy (Lev. 11:45; 19:2). All thesacrificial codes of Leviticus represent the moral requirements ofholiness for the worshipers. Because of God’s character ofholiness, he cannot tolerate sin in the lives of people, and hebrings judgment to those who do not repent (Hab. 1:13).

Loveand justice.Because “God is love,” no one reaches the true knowledgeof God without having love (1John 4:8). Images of the fatherand the faithful husband are frequently employed to portray God’slove (Deut. 1:31; Jer. 31:32; Hos. 2:14–20; 11:1–4).God’s love was supremely demonstrated by the giving of his onlySon Jesus Christ for his people (John 3:16; Rom. 5:7–8; 1John4:9–10). God expects his people to follow the model of Christ’ssacrificial love (1John 3:16).

God’sjustice is the foundation of his moral law and his ways (Deut. 32:4;Job 34:12; Ps. 9:16; Rev. 15:3). It is also seen in his will (Ps.99:4). God loves justice and acts with justice (Ps. 33:5). God’sjustice is demonstrated in judging people according to theirdeeds—punishing wickedness and rewarding righteousness (Ezek.18:20; Ps. 58:11; Rev. 20:12–13). God establishes justice byupholding the cause of the oppressed (Ps. 103:6) and by vindicatingthose afflicted (1Sam. 25:39). God is completely impartial inimplementing justice (Job 34:18–19). As with holiness, Godrequires his people to reflect his justice (Prov. 21:3).

Godkeeps a perfect balance between the attributes of love and justice.God’s love never infringes upon his justice, and vice versa.The cross of Jesus Christ perfectly shows these two attributes in oneact. Because of his love, God gave his only Son for his people;because of his justice, God punished his Son for the sake of theirsins. The good news is that God’s justice was satisfied by thework of Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:25–26).

Righteousnessand mercy.God’s righteousness shows his unique moral perfection. God’snature, actions, and laws display his character of righteousness(Pss. 19:8–9; 119:137; Dan. 9:14). “Righteousness andjustice” are the foundation of God’s throne (Ps. 89:14).God’s righteousness was especially demonstrated in the work ofJesus Christ (Rom. 3:21–22). God’s righteousness willultimately be revealed in his final judgment (Rev. 19:2; 20–22;cf. Ps. 7:11).

TheEnglish word “mercy” renders various words in theoriginal languages: in Hebrew, khesed, khanan, rakham; in Greek,charis, eleos, oiktirmos, splanchnon. English Bibles translate thesevariously as “mercy,” “compassion,” “grace,”“kindness,” or “love.” The word “mercy”is chosen here as a representative concept (cf. Ps. 86:15). God’smercy is most clearly seen in his act of forgiving sinners. In thePsalter, “Have mercy on me” is the most common form ofexpression when the psalmist entreats God’s forgiveness (Pss.41:4, 10; 51:1). God’s mercy is shown abundantly to his chosenpeople (Eph. 2:4–8). Because of his mercy, their sins areforgiven (Mic. 7:18), their punishments are withheld (Ezra 9:13), andeven sinners’ prayers are heard (Ps. 51:1; Luke 18:13–14).God is “the Father of mercies” (2Cor. 1:3 NRSV).

Godkeeps a perfect balance between righteousness and mercy. Hisrighteousness and mercy never infringe upon each other, nor does oneoperate at the expense of the other. God’s abundant mercy isshown to sinners through Jesus Christ, but if they do not repent oftheir sins, his righteous judgment will be brought upon them.

Faithfulness.God’s faithfulness is revealed in keeping the covenant that hemade with his people. God “is the faithful God, keeping hiscovenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him andkeep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). God is faithful to hischaracter, his name, and his word (Neh. 9:8; Ps. 106:8; 2Tim.2:13; Heb. 6:13–18). God’s faithfulness is clearly seenin fulfilling his promise (Josh. 23:14). God showed his faithfulnessby fulfilling all the promises that he made to Abraham (Gen. 12:2–3;Rom. 9:9; Gal. 4:28; Heb. 6:13–15), by having Solomon build thetemple that he promised to David (2Sam. 7:12–13; 1Kings8:17–21), and by sending his people into exile in Babylon andreturning them to their homeland (Jer. 25:8–11; Dan. 9:2–3).God’s faithfulness was ultimately demonstrated by sending JesusChrist, as was promised in the OT (Luke 24:44; Acts 13:32–33;1Cor. 15:3–8).

Goodness.Jesus said, “No one is good—except God alone” (Mark10:18). God demonstrates his goodness in his actions (Ps. 119:68), inhis work of creation (1Tim. 4:4), in his love (Ps. 86:5), andin his promises (Josh. 23:14–15).

Patience.God is “slow to anger” (Exod. 34:6; Num. 14:18), which isa favorite expression for his patience (Neh. 9:17; Pss. 86:15; 103:8;Joel 2:13). God is patient with sinful people for a long time (Acts13:18). Because of his patient character, he delays punishment (Isa.42:14). For instance, God was patient with his disobedient prophetJonah and also with the sinful people of Nineveh (Jon. 3:1–10).The purpose of God’s patience is to lead people towardrepentance (Rom.2:4).

Godof the Trinity

TheChristian God of the Bible is the triune God. God is one but existsin three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt.28:19). The Son is one with the Father (John 10:30); the Holy Spiritis one with God (2Sam. 23:2–3). All three share the samedivine nature; they are all-knowing, holy, glorious, and called“Lord” and “God” (Matt. 11:25; John 1:1;20:28; Acts 3:22; 5:3–4; 10:36; 1Cor. 8:6; 2Cor.3:17–18; 2Pet. 1:1). All three share in the same work ofcreation (Gen. 1:1–3), salvation (1Pet. 1:2), indwelling(John 14:23), and directing the church’s mission (Matt.28:18–20; Acts 16:6–10; 14:27; 13:2–4).

In the ancient world, shame and honor are two binaryopposites used to depict one’s status or behavior, which aculture approves or disapproves. The system of honor and shame servesas a primary means of social control. Thus, knowing how to act toconform to the code of social behavior expected by one’s groupis essential to the maintenance of that community.

Inthe Bible, the noun “honor” is representedby kabod (from the verb “to be heavy”) in the OT, and bytimē (from the verb “to honor”) in the NT. Thereverse of honor is shame, which is represented by a varietyof Hebrew and Greek terms, such as boshet in the OT, and aischynēin the NT.

InIsrael, the Holiness Code (Lev. 17–26; cf. Num. 5:2–3;8:6–7, 14–15) is comparable to the code of honor andshame. As a covenant community, Israel has the obligation to abide bythe sanction imposed by God to attain honor (Deut. 4:6–8;26:18–19; Pss. 34:5, 8–9; 37:18–19; 127:5; cf.2Chron. 26:18; Pss. 8:5; 62:7; 84:11; Rom. 2:7–11).Israel is honored (Exod. 32:11–12; Deut. 32:26–27) beforethe nations when God’s honor is upheld (Exod. 7:5; 10:1–2;14:4, 17–18). Violation of covenantal stipulations—forexample, deceptions in trading (Deut. 25:16), acts of “abomination”(Lev. 18:17, 22–23, 26–29), idolatry (Deut. 31:20;32:15–17), and failure to perform duties prescribed in the law(Deut. 25:7–10)—results in disgrace before others (Exod.32:25) and God (Deut. 28:25–26, 37).

Thestatus of honor can be ascribed to an individual. A person is morehonorable who is the firstborn (Gen. 49:3), comes from an esteemedfamily (Ps. 45:9), or is married into a dignified family (Gen. 41:45;Ruth 4:5). This worth will last a lifetime unless the reputation ofthe family is compromised, either because of economics (Ruth 1:1–21)or violation of the codes of conduct, such as adultery and incest(Exod. 20:14; Lev. 18:20; 20:10–21; Deut. 5:18; 22:22; Prov.6:32–33), though not necessarily divorce (Deut. 24:1–4).Certain groups of people are honored because of special privilegegranted to them (Prov. 8:15–16; Dan. 2:21; Rom. 13:1–5)—forexample, priests (Exod. 28:2, 40; Ps. 110:4; Heb. 7:21), kings (Ps.2:7), sages (Prov. 3:35), Israel (Exod. 19:6; Deut. 7:6; 8:11–9:7;26:16–19), and the church (1Pet. 2:9).

Wealthsymbolizes one’s status and claims respect for its owners (Gen.12:10–20; 14:21–24; 1Kings 3:13; Prov. 3:16; 8:18;22:4; Ps. 49:16; Isa. 61:6, 12) but does not equate the state ofbeing poor with shame (cf. Ps. 12:5) unless it is a result of morallassitude (Prov. 13:18). Parts of the human body symbolize worth andvalue. Certain parts of the body are less honorable than others, andto expose them is to invite disgrace (2Sam. 10:4–5;1Chron. 19:4; Isa. 20:4; 1Cor. 12:23–24).

Thestatus of honor can also be achieved by an individual’s merits(cf. Rom. 2:7–11). Certain types of behavior are honorable—forexample, humility (Prov. 15:33; 18:12; 29:23), taking care of one’smaster (Prov. 27:18), honoring parents (Exod. 20:12; 21:15; 22:28;Prov. 19:26; Mal. 1:6; Matt. 15:4; Eph. 6:2), good service (Gen.45:13), military exploits (2Sam. 23:19–23; cf. 2Chron.32:21), almsgiving and justice (Prov. 21:21). One important aspect ofachieving honor is the pursuit of wisdom. The ways of wisdom arehonorable (Prov. 3:16–17; 4:8; 8:18), preserving a person fromdishonor (Prov. 3:16–17, 31–33, 35; 24:14), but the waysof folly, such as injustice (Prov. 1:22; 14:31) and dishonoringparents (Prov. 30:17; cf. Exod. 20:12; 21:15; Lev. 20:9; Deut.27:16), are a disgrace (Prov. 20:3; 26:1). The failure to performone’s duty (Gen. 40:1–3) or a defeat in battle (Isa.23:9; Lam. 1:8; Nah. 3:10) results in shame and, accordingly, loss ofsocial status (Isa. 16:14; 23:9; Jer. 46:12; Lam. 1:6, 8; Hos. 4:7).An ultimate form of disgrace is to be hanged for public viewing(Deut. 21:22–23; Esther 5:14; 7:7–10; Matt. 27:32–44;Mark 15:22–32; Luke 23:33–43; John 19:17–24; 1Cor.1:18–25). In a patriarchal society, the status of women isobtained through their sexual exclusiveness. Their chastity (Gen.38:24; Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:13–21; cf. 2Sam. 13:13; Song8:8–9) and fertility (Gen. 16:2; 30:2; 1Sam. 1:3–8)become indicators of family and social worth.

A collection of 150 poems. They are the hymnbook of the OTperiod, used in public worship. Psalms contains songs of differentlengths, types, and dates. The earliest psalm (Ps. 90) is attributedto Moses (mid-second millennium BC), while the content of Ps. 126 andPs. 137 points to the latest periods of the OT (mid-first millenniumBC). They continue to be used as a source of public worship andprivate devotion.

HistoricalBackground

Mostpsalms have a title. In the Hebrew text this title comprises thefirst verse, whereas English translations set it off before the firstverse. Titles vary. Many name an author (e.g., David [Ps. 3]; Asaph[Ps. 77]; sons of Korah [Ps. 42]), while others provide informationabout genre (e.g., Psalms of Ascent [Pss. 120–134]), tune(e.g., “Do Not Destroy” [Ps. 75]), use in worship (Ps.92), and a circ*mstance that led to composition (Ps. 51). Informationin the title gives hints concerning how psalms were written andbrought into a final collection.

Composition

Asmentioned, the titles of the psalms often give indications ofauthorship and occasionally name the circ*mstance that led to thewriting of the psalm. A good example is Ps. 51, where the titlestates, “For the director of music. A psalm of David. When theprophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery withBathsheba.” The title connects the psalm with the eventsrecorded in 2Sam. 11–12 and suggests that David wrote thesong in response to his sin and Nathan’s confrontation.

Althoughonly a handful of the psalms have such a historical title, it islikely that most psalms were composed in response to some specificcirc*mstance that encouraged the author to write. Interestingly,though, the psalmists do not speak about the specific circ*mstance inthe psalm itself. Psalm 51, for instance, fits perfectly with thesituation that the title describes in that it expresses guilt towardGod and asks for forgiveness, but nowhere does it speak specificallyabout adultery. The psalmists do this intentionally because they arewriting the song not as a memorial to an event, but rather as aprayer that others who have had similar though not identicalexperiences can use after them. Thus, Ps. 51 has been used as a modelprayer for many penitents, whether they have sinned like David or inanother way.

Mostmodern hymns have a similar background. John Newton, for instance,was inspired to write “Amazing Grace” because of awe thathe felt at his conversion to Christianity from the evil of being aslave trader. However, when he wrote it, he wanted others to sing itas reflecting not on his conversion but on their own.

Collection

Thepsalms were composed over a thousand-year period. Thus, it appearsthat the book of Psalms was a growing collection until it came to aclose at an unknown time between the writing of the two Testaments.

In1Chron. 16:7–36 we may get a glimpse of how the processworked. The text describes David turning a musical composition overto the Levitical musician Asaph and his associates. It is likely thatthe priests kept an official copy of the book of Psalms in the holyplace (the temple while it stood). The psalms, after all, were thehymns of ancient Israel. Their primary function was as a corporatebook of prayer, though certainly they could be used in privatedevotions (note Hannah’s prayer in 1Sam. 2:1–10 andits relationship to Ps. 113).

Organizationand Structure

Thepsalms have no obvious organization that explains the location of allthe psalms. They are not organized in terms of genre, authorship,time of composition, or length. There is only one statement aboutorganization, found in Ps. 72:20: “This concludes the prayersof David son of Jesse.” In the light of this comment, it issurprising that a number of Davidic psalms appear in subsequentsections (Pss. 101; 103; 108–110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138–145).The best explanation is that at one point Ps. 72 concluded theDavidic psalms, but there was a reorganization before the canonicalorder was permanently closed.

Anumber of contemporary theories try to find some deep structure tothe book, but it is best to refrain from speculation in regard to theoverall structure. Nonetheless, a few structural characteristics areobvious. First, the division of Psalms into five books seems toreflect the fivefold division of the Pentateuch:

I.Book 1 (Pss. 1–41)

II.Book 2 (Pss. 42–72)

III.Book 3 (Pss. 73–89)

IV.Book 4 (Pss. 90–106)

V.Book 5 (Pss. 107–150)

Eachbook ends with a doxology. Such an intentional association with thePentateuch would lend support to the Psalter’s claim toauthority. Although these are prayers to God, they are also God’sword.

Second,within the Psalter there are subcollections. That is, there arepsalms that came into the book not individually but as a group. Thebest-known such group are the Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134),probably so named because worshipers sang them while going up(ascending) to the Temple Mount during one of the annual religiousfestivals in Jerusalem.

Third,it appears that psalms are intentionally placed at the beginning andat the end of the book to serve as an introduction and a conclusion.Psalms 1–2 serve as an introduction that alerts the reader tothe twin important themes of law and messiah. Psalm 1 pronounces ablessing on those who love God’s law. The psalms, after all,are an intimate and personal conversation with God. One must be onthe side of the godly to enter such a holy textual space, just as onemust be godly to enter the precincts of the temple. After the readerenters, Psalm 2 provides an encounter with God and his anointed one(messiah). At the end of the book, the last five psalms (Pss.146–150) constitute a tremendous doxology of praise.

Thisleads to the final observation on structure. Psalms of lamentpredominate at the beginning of the book, but they give way to hymnsof praise toward the end. It is almost as if one enters the Psaltermourning and leaves it praising. Indeed, the Psalter brings thereader into contact with God and thus transforms the reader fromsadness to joy.

LiteraryConsiderations

Genre.The individual psalms may be identified as songs, prayers, or poems.Specifically, they are lyric poems (expressing the emotions of thepoet), often addressed to God, and set to musical accompaniment.Although the categories overlap, seven different types of psalms canbe recognized, with the first three being by far the most common.

• Lament.The largest single group of psalms are the laments, characterized bythe expression of unhappy emotions: sadness, disappointment, anger,worry. The lamenters call on God to save them, even while at timescomplaining about God’s actions toward them (Ps. 42:9–10).Some laments contain petitions for forgiveness (Ps. 51), while othersassert innocence of any wrongdoing (Ps. 26). A few laments evencontain curses directed toward the enemies who are trying to harm thepsalmist (Ps. 69:19–28). Most laments end by praising God orreaffirming confidence in God (Ps. 130:7–8). Usually the reasonfor the change from mourning to rejoicing is not given, but Ps. 77pinpoints the reason as the memory of God’s great salvationevents in the past (vv. 10, 16–20). One psalm, Ps. 88, lamentsbut never makes the turn, remaining in the pit of despair. Yet evenhere we have a glimmer of hope in that the one who laments is stillspeaking to God.

• Thanksgiving.When God answers a lament, the response is thanksgiving. Psalms ofthanksgiving are very similar to hymns (see below), but they cite anearlier problem that God has addressed. Psalm 30 praises God forrestoring the psalmist’s good fortune and health after hesuffered due to his earlier arrogance that led him to forget God (vv.6–7).

• Hymn.Hymns are psalms of unalloyed praise directed toward God. Thepsalmists often call for others to join their worship of God (Ps.100).

• Remembrance.While many psalms evoke memories of God’s actions in the past(as the lament in Ps. 77 recalls the exodus), certain psalms focus onrehearsing the actions of God in the past. Psalm 136 is one of themost memorable examples. As a liturgical psalm, it recites a divineaction (“[God] swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea”[v.15]) followed by a congregational response (“His loveendures forever”).

• Confidence.These psalms are defined by their mood of quiet trust in God even inthe midst of trouble. They often present a reassuring image of God.The picture of God as a shepherd in Ps. 23 or as a mother in Ps. 131are good examples.

• Wisdom.Some psalms meditate on the law (Pss. 1; 119) or have interestssimilar to those of wisdom literature, such as Job, Proverbs, andEcclesiastes (Pss. 49; 73).

• Kingship.A number of psalms praise God as king (Ps. 47) or the human king ashis agent (Pss. 20–21) or both (Ps.2).

Style.The psalms are poems, and so their style is characterized by the useof parallelism and figurative language. Poetry is also notable forits short lines. A poet packs a lot of meaning into very few words.So it is important to slow down and reflect on a psalm in order toderive its maximum effect. Besides brevity of expression,parallelism, and figurative language, poets create interest by usingother literary tools. The psalmists use these poetic devices not onlyto inform their readers’ intellect but also to stimulate theirimagination and arouse their emotions. (See also Acrostic; Imagery;Poetry.)

TheologicalMessage

Althoughthe psalms are not theological essays, readers can learn about Godand their relationship with God from these poems. The book of Psalmsis a bit like a portrait gallery of God, using images to describe whohe is and the nature of our relationship with him. Some examplesinclude God as shepherd (Ps. 23), king (Ps. 47), warrior (Ps. 98),and mother (Ps. 131), and the list could be greatly expanded. Eachone of these picture images casts light on the nature of God and alsothe nature of our relationship with God. After all, theaforementioned psalms explicitly or implicitly describe God’speople as sheep, subjects, soldiers, and children.

Connectionto the New Testament and Today

Jesushimself draws attention to Psalms as a book that anticipated hiscoming suffering and glorification (Luke 24:25–27, 44). TheGospels recognized that Jesus’ zeal for God was well expressedby Ps. 69:9 (John 2:17). When at the apex of his suffering on thecross, Jesus uttered the words found in Ps. 22:1 (Matt. 27:46). TheNT writers also saw that Jesus was the fulfillment of the covenantthat promised that a son of David would have an everlasting throne(2Sam. 7:16). Accordingly, the royal psalms (e.g., Pss. 2; 110)often were applied to Jesus, who is the Messiah (the Christ, “theanointed one”).

Todaywe read Psalms not only as an ancient witness to the coming work ofChrist but also, as John Calvin put it, as a mirror of our souls. Thepsalms were written for worshipers who came after them with similarthough not identical joys and problems. The psalms should becomemodels of our prayers.

OldTestament and Jewish Literature

Inthe OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers tohumanity in general or to a specific individual. The general use of“son of man” occurs in poetic texts in which the phrasefunctions as a synonym for “man” or “human being”(Num. 23:19; Isa. 51:12; Pss. 144:3; 146:3). In Ps. 8:4 (ESV) thepsalmist asks, “What is man that you are mindful of him, andthe son of man that you care for him?” Echoing the creation ofman in Gen. 1, “man” and “son of man” in thispsalm have a royal status: being “crowned with glory and honor”and receiving dominion over all of God’s creation (Ps. 8:5–6).Later, in Ps. 80:17, “son of man” refers to the nation ofIsrael. The psalmist supplicates that God would make strong forhimself the “son of man” over Israel’s enemies(80:12–16). In Ezekiel, God addresses the prophet himself as“son of man,” possibly indicating his human statuscompared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique statusas God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.

Oneof the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in theGospel tradition. Scholars debate the date of the composition of thischapter. While some argue for the sixth century BC, others prefer asecond-century BC date during the oppressive reign of AntiochusIVEpiphanes. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’svision (7:1–14), while the second half contains itsinterpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “onelike a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13).This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are“like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and“like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesomethat it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom(7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient worldempires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man”has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthlyIsrael, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed withauthority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people ofthe Most High” receive in v.27. In this way, the “onelike a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthlysaints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly beingsuch as the archangel Gabriel (Dan. 9:21) or Michael (Dan. 10:13;12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenlycounterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battleon its behalf.

Insubsequent Jewish literature, the “one like a son of man”from Dan. 7 becomes quite active, appearing to be a development ofthe static image who is “given authority, glory and sovereignpower” (Dan. 7:14). In 1En. 37–71, a text thatdates from the last half of the first century BC to the first half ofthe first century AD, the “Son of Man” is seated upon histhrone and will judge “the kings and the mighty” who havepersecuted faithful Israel (46:4–8; 62:5). At that point, thefaithful ones (i.e., the holy, righteous, and chosen) will be formedinto a new congregation. In another Jewish text that dates from theend of the first century AD, there is a strong echo of the Danielicson of man. In 4Ezra 13, “something like the figure of aman came up out of the heart of the sea” (v.3a). Unlikein 1Enoch, this figure is a warrior who destroys with firethose who attempt to wage war on him. These texts indicate that atleast two traditions developed and reinterpreted the “one likea son of man” from Dan. 7. He becomes an individual whoexecutes judgment in one tradition, and one who executes destructionin another.

NewTestament

Inthe NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospelsand, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus),is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. The phrase, or a variationof it, also occurs in Acts 7:56; Heb. 2:6; Rev. 1:13; 14:14. Unlikein Daniel or 1Enoch, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with thedefinite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a knownfigure. Because of this and because the Son of Man in 1Enochand 4Ezra have similar functions, many scholars in themid-twentieth century speculated that in first-century Judaism manyJews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as saviorand judge. Others suggested that the significance of the phrase isfound in its Aramaic background, bar ’enash’a, which inother texts means “I,” “man,” “a man,”or “someone.” Despite these alternatives, the OT providesthe most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in theGospels.

TheSon of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories:earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings.Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Sonof Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel theSon of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance inYahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in theGospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesusalso predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raisedagain. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur threetimes (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight ofJesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the littlehorn (v.21). If the “one like a son of man”represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonablethat he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text ofDaniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference toDan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to hisvindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus inMark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicialresponsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33).Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for thereturn of the Son of Man (Luke 12:39–40; 17:22–37;21:34–36).

InActs, the vision that Stephen witnesses confirms that the Son of Manhas indeed been exalted to the right hand of God (Acts 7:56). In theGospel of John, the epithet is used as the object of the verbs “tolift up” and “to glorify,” so that the death ofJesus is a form of exaltation (John 8:28; 12:23; 13:31), whichreflects his current exalted status in early Christian thinking.Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly templefunctioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev.1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud”(14:14–16).

The name of a person and a word for “humankind.”That the Hebrew word ’adam can be both a personal name and areference to humankind provides the biblical writers with a valuablemeans of drawing theological conclusions important to the nature ofhumankind’s status before God. Unfortunately, in various placesit is unclear whether it is a proper name or a more general noun. Theorigin of the word is usually understood to be related to “red”or “red soil,” and the writer of Genesis makes the linkbetween “the man” and “the soil” moreapparent in Gen. 2:7, where man is said to have been created from’adamah (ground, earth).

Thefirst man was named “Adam.” Because of the difficultiesof the word ’adam serving as both a proper name and meaningsimply “human,” there is disagreement concerning when thetext of Gen. 1–3 is referring to humankind and when it isutilizing “Adam” as a reference to the first man’sname. This discussion often is driven by one’s explanation oforigins; however, the general rule applied by many Bible translationsis that the presence of the definite article (“the”)indicates that the author has humankind in mind, whereas its absenceindicates the use of the proper name.

Humankindwas created in the image of God (Gen. 1:27), who also uniquelybreathed into human beings his own breath (2:7), indicating adistinct capacity for relationship between them and God. Thisemphasis is furthered in the text by God’s granting tohumankind stewardship of the rest of his creation (1:28–30).The fall (Gen. 3) apparently arose out of the desire of human beingsto usurp God’s position and determine for themselves what isbeneficial and what is harmful (knowledge of good and evil). The stepof disobedience taken in consuming fruit from the forbidden tree haddire consequences for the relationships between men and women,humankind and creation, and humankind and God. The fall, however, didnot eliminate the reality that humankind is still in the image of Godand capable of continued relationship with him (5:1–3).

OtherOT passages rely on Adam for purposes of genealogy (Gen. 5:4;1 Chron. 1:1) but also begin to highlight some theologicalconceptions of him that would become significant in his descriptionelsewhere in Scripture. Job 31:33 may suggest a link between Adam’sattempt to cover his sin (Gen. 3:7, 10) and the propensity that humanbeings have to do the same (cf. Isa. 43:27). Psalm 8 expressesreflections concerning the creation of humankind, and the wonder ofGod’s interest and investment of himself in it. The writer ofEcclesiastes seemingly toils over the status of human beings inrelation to the earth, since the former die but the latter continues(Eccles. 1:3–4). Such passages demonstrate the corporateresponsibility that humankind bears for sin following Adam’sfirst sin and establish a framework through which the NT writers maybe able to address the most significant human problems.

Adamis the center of several significant references in the NT. Inparticular, passages such as Rom. 5:12–21 and 1 Cor.15:21–49 establish an Adam/Christ, or First Adam/Second Adamtypology. In the Romans passage, Paul draws on the Jewish concept ofcorporate identity in order to identify the status of death as commonthroughout all humanity because of the first Adam, and the hope ofsalvation and grace as available to all humanity because of thesecond Adam. The 1 Corinthians passage makes its argument alongsimilar lines; however, its interest is in the granting of thepossibility of resurrection to humanity in the second Adam, whoprovides a permanent body, while the first Adam only granted alimited body of dust.

Inother places in the NT the priority of Adam and his impact onhumanity are the source of theological reflection as well. Luke seemsto argue for the solidarity of Jesus with all of humanity by takinghis genealogy back to Adam (Luke 3). Paul draws on the priority ofAdam being created before Eve, as well as her deception by theserpent, as a rationale for not permitting women certain roles in thechurch (1 Tim. 2:13–14). The writer of Hebrews draws theconnection between humankind and Christ in order to highlight Jesus’unique capacity for dealing with the sinful human condition (Heb. 2).See also Adam, Town of; Adam and Eve.

The study of human beings, their nature and origins. TheChristian understanding of anthropology stems from a biblical view ofhumankind’s relationship to God.

TheOrigin of Humankind

Accordingto Genesis, the creation of humankind took place on the sixth day ofthe creation week. The amount of narrative space allotted to this day(Gen. 1:24–31) testifies to the special importance of whathappened. Human beings were made on the same day as the animals.Human beings were not given a day of their own, showing that theyhave a certain kinship with the animals, although they are far morethan highly successful and adaptive mammals. This has implicationsfor the care of animals and of the environment generally. The valueof human beings and their special place in the created order is clearin passages such as Pss. 8:5–6; 104:14–15.

Createdin the image of God.Whenit came to the making of human beings, God deliberated over thiscrucial step (Gen. 1:26). The plural of exhortation in “Let usmake man in our image” signals that the decision to makehumankind was the most important one that God had made so far.Genesis 1 says that human beings are like God in some way.

Variousopinions have been canvassed as to what the “image” is.We cannot totally exclude the physical form of humans, given God’shumanoid form in OT appearances (theophanies; e.g., Isa. 6:1; Ezek.1:26; Amos 9:1). The image has sometimes been interpreted as a task,the exercising of dominion (Gen. 1:28), with humanity appointed ascreation’s king, ruling under God. But the image is betterunderstood as the precondition for rule rather than rule itself. Theimage shows human worth (Gen. 9:6) and differentiates humans from allother creatures. It is proper for the Bible to use anthropomorphiclanguage for God, for humans are remarkably like God. Both male andfemale are in the image of God (“in the image of God he createdthem; male and female he created them” [1:27]), so that thedivine image is not maleness, nor is sexual differentiation theimage. Commonly, the image of God is thought to be some peculiarquality of human beings—for example, rationality, speech, moralsense, personality, humans as relational beings.

Everycentury has its own view of what is the essence of humanity. However,nothing in the passage allows a choice among such alternatives. Thepoint of the passage is simply the fact of the likeness, with noexact definition being provided. The fact of the image is the basisof the divine prohibition of murder and of the strict penalty appliedto the transgressor (9:4–6). The fall into sin affected everyaspect of the human constitution, and the Bible does not minimize thefact of human sinfulness (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Rom. 3:10–18);nevertheless, humans are still in the image of God (Gen. 5:1–3;9:6; 1 Cor. 11:7). God’s plan of salvation is aimed atridding creation (and especially humanity) of the baneful effects ofsin, and this will be achieved through the work of Christ, who is theimage of God (2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15–20; Heb. 1:1–3;2:5–18). The outcome will be the conformity of believers inChrist to his glorious image (Rom. 8:29–30; 2 Cor. 3.18).

Placein the created order.God’s purpose in giving human beings the divine image is “sothey may rule” (NET [Gen. 1:26b translated as a purposeclause]). The syntax suggests that the image is a presupposition ofdominion. It is plain that such a delegated authority makes humansstewards. The vegetarian diet of Gen.1:29 (there was no eating ofmeat at first) represents a limitation to the human right ofdominion. Adam’s naming of the animals was (in part) expressiveof his sovereignty over them (2:19). Later, Noah was charged to bringpairs of animals into the ark to preserve them alive (6:19–20),showing care for other creatures. The patriarchs tended flocks(13:2–9; 26:12–14), and Joseph’s relief measuressaved the lives of people and animals (47:15–18). The wantondestruction of the Promised Land was expressly forbidden (Deut.20:19–20). Humanity is accountable to God for the stewardshipof the earth. The divine command “be fruitful and multiply”(Gen. 1:28 NRSV) shows that God’s purpose is that the humanrace populate the whole earth.

AtGen. 2:7 the biblical narrative becomes thoroughly anthropocentric,picturing the little world that God establishes around the first man,so this account is quite different from the cosmic presentation ofGen. 1. In Gen. 1 humankind is the apex of a pyramid, the last andhighest of a series of creatures; in Gen. 2 the man is the center ofa circle, everything else made to fit around him, and his connectionto the physical earth is emphasized. In either view, a very specialplace is given to human beings in the created order. The two picturesare complementary, not contradictory.

The“man” (’adam) is formed from the “ground”(’adamah), with the related Hebrew words making a pun. Man’sname reminds him of his earthy origins. He is made from the “dust,”which hints at his coming death. He will return to the dust (Gen.3:19; cf. Job 10:8–9; Ps. 103:14; Isa. 29:16). The reference to“the breath of life” (Gen. 2:7) is due to the fact thatthis leaves a person at death (Job 34:14–15; Ps. 104:29–30),so man’s (potential) mortality is implied. Ironically, themaking of man is described using the language of death. What isdescribed in Gen. 2 is the making of the first man, from whom therest of the human race has descended, not the making of humankind,though the word ’adam can mean that in other contexts.

TheNature of Humankind

Body,soul, and spirit.Arguments over whether human nature is bipartite (body and soul) ortripartite (body, soul, spirit) are not to be decided by arbitraryappeal to isolated verses. Verses can be found in apparent supportfor both the first view (e.g., Matt. 10:28) and the second (e.g.,1 Thess. 5:23), but certainly the first scheme is much moreprevalent in the Bible. “Soul” and “spirit”can be used interchangeably (Eccles. 3:21; 12:7; Ezek. 18:31). Deathis marked by the parting of soul/spirit and body, but it would be amistake to think that human beings are made up of separate componentparts, or that the physical body is only a dispensable shell and notessential to true humanity. The physicality of human existence in the“body” is owned and celebrated in Scripture, part of thatbeing the positive attitude to sexuality when properly expressed(Song of Songs; 1 Cor. 7) and the nonascetic nature of biblicalethics (1 Cor. 10:31; Col. 2:23). The doctrine of theresurrection of the body is the fullest expression of this (1 Cor.15), in contrast to ancient Greek thought that viewed the body asinherently evil and understood salvation as the immortality of theliberated, disembodied soul.

Thedifferent words used in relation to persons are only intended torefer to and at times focus on different aspects of unified humannature. References to the “soul” may stress individualresponsibility (e.g., Ezek. 18:4 NASB: “The soul who sins willdie”). In Ps. 103:1–2, “O my soul” expressesemphatic self-encouragement to praise God and is in parallel with“all my inmost being”—that is, “my wholebeing” (an example of synecdoche: a part standing for the whole[cf. Ps. 35:10]). These are ways of referring to oneself as a personwho expresses will and intention (cf. Ps. 42:5–6, 11). The“flesh” is used to stress the weakness of mortal humanity(e.g., Isa. 40:6 RSV: “All flesh is grass”). The “heart”is the volitional center of a human being (Prov. 4:23; cf. Mark7:17–23). The emotional and empathetic reactions of humans aredescribed by reference to the organs: “liver,” “kidneys,”“bowels.”

Moralsand responsibility.In Gen. 2 the complexities of the man’s moral relation to Godand his relations with the soil, with the animals, and with the womanare explored. God deposited the man in the garden “to work itand take care of it” (2:15). The words chosen to designate theman’s work prior to the fall have an aura of worship aboutthem, for they are later used in the OT for the cultic actions ofserving and guarding within the sanctuary. The priests served byoffering sacrifices, and the Levites guarded the gates of the sacredprecinct. A theology of work as a religious vocation is presented.The man was a kind of king-priest in the garden of God.

Themoral responsibility of humanity is signaled from the beginning.God’s command gives permission for the man to eat from “anytree” except one (Gen. 2:16–17) and as such indicatesman’s freedom, so that this command is no great restriction.The wording “you are free to eat” reinforces the pointabout God’s generous provision. The prohibition is embedded inthe description of God’s fatherly care for the man and graciousact in placing him in the garden. The divine restriction is slightand not at all overbearing, though the serpent will seek to make itappear mean-spirited (3:1). The command and prohibition are the veryfirst words of God to the man, marking them out as of fundamentalimportance for the relationship between them. The prohibition (“youmust not eat . . .”) is an absolute one in thestyle of the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1–17; Deut. 5:6–21).What is placed before the man is a test that gives him theopportunity to express his loyalty to God. A relationship ofobedience and trust requires the possibility of choice and theopportunity to disobey (if that is what he wants to do). The moralnature and responsibility of individuals is not a late discovery bythe prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 18); rather, it is the presuppositionbehind the Mosaic law, for the commands of the Decalogue (“youshall not . . .”) are phrased as commands toindividuals (as the Hebrew makes clear). On the other hand, theconcept of corporate responsibility is also present (e.g., Achan’spunishment in Josh. 7).

Relationships.Human beings are relational by nature, as the creation of the womanas a helper and partner for the first man makes plain (Gen. 2:18–25).Later in Scripture this is put in more general terms, so thatfriendship and mutual cooperation are shown to be essential to life(Eccles. 4:7–12). The body life of the church reflects the samefact and need (1 Cor. 12). In Psalms, human needs andvulnerability find their answer and fulfillment in God, with thepsalmist acknowledging his frailty and his creaturely dependence onGod (e.g., Ps. 90). This also shows the folly of sinful human pride,against which the prophets so often inveighed (e.g., Isa. 2:9,11–17, 22).

A collection of 150 poems. They are the hymnbook of the OTperiod, used in public worship. Psalms contains songs of differentlengths, types, and dates. The earliest psalm (Ps. 90) is attributedto Moses (mid-second millennium BC), while the content of Ps. 126 andPs. 137 points to the latest periods of the OT (mid-first millenniumBC). They continue to be used as a source of public worship andprivate devotion.

HistoricalBackground

Mostpsalms have a title. In the Hebrew text this title comprises thefirst verse, whereas English translations set it off before the firstverse. Titles vary. Many name an author (e.g., David [Ps. 3]; Asaph[Ps. 77]; sons of Korah [Ps. 42]), while others provide informationabout genre (e.g., Psalms of Ascent [Pss. 120–134]), tune(e.g., “Do Not Destroy” [Ps. 75]), use in worship (Ps.92), and a circ*mstance that led to composition (Ps. 51). Informationin the title gives hints concerning how psalms were written andbrought into a final collection.

Composition

Asmentioned, the titles of the psalms often give indications ofauthorship and occasionally name the circ*mstance that led to thewriting of the psalm. A good example is Ps. 51, where the titlestates, “For the director of music. A psalm of David. When theprophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery withBathsheba.” The title connects the psalm with the eventsrecorded in 2Sam. 11–12 and suggests that David wrote thesong in response to his sin and Nathan’s confrontation.

Althoughonly a handful of the psalms have such a historical title, it islikely that most psalms were composed in response to some specificcirc*mstance that encouraged the author to write. Interestingly,though, the psalmists do not speak about the specific circ*mstance inthe psalm itself. Psalm 51, for instance, fits perfectly with thesituation that the title describes in that it expresses guilt towardGod and asks for forgiveness, but nowhere does it speak specificallyabout adultery. The psalmists do this intentionally because they arewriting the song not as a memorial to an event, but rather as aprayer that others who have had similar though not identicalexperiences can use after them. Thus, Ps. 51 has been used as a modelprayer for many penitents, whether they have sinned like David or inanother way.

Mostmodern hymns have a similar background. John Newton, for instance,was inspired to write “Amazing Grace” because of awe thathe felt at his conversion to Christianity from the evil of being aslave trader. However, when he wrote it, he wanted others to sing itas reflecting not on his conversion but on their own.

Collection

Thepsalms were composed over a thousand-year period. Thus, it appearsthat the book of Psalms was a growing collection until it came to aclose at an unknown time between the writing of the two Testaments.

In1Chron. 16:7–36 we may get a glimpse of how the processworked. The text describes David turning a musical composition overto the Levitical musician Asaph and his associates. It is likely thatthe priests kept an official copy of the book of Psalms in the holyplace (the temple while it stood). The psalms, after all, were thehymns of ancient Israel. Their primary function was as a corporatebook of prayer, though certainly they could be used in privatedevotions (note Hannah’s prayer in 1Sam. 2:1–10 andits relationship to Ps. 113).

Organizationand Structure

Thepsalms have no obvious organization that explains the location of allthe psalms. They are not organized in terms of genre, authorship,time of composition, or length. There is only one statement aboutorganization, found in Ps. 72:20: “This concludes the prayersof David son of Jesse.” In the light of this comment, it issurprising that a number of Davidic psalms appear in subsequentsections (Pss. 101; 103; 108–110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138–145).The best explanation is that at one point Ps. 72 concluded theDavidic psalms, but there was a reorganization before the canonicalorder was permanently closed.

Anumber of contemporary theories try to find some deep structure tothe book, but it is best to refrain from speculation in regard to theoverall structure. Nonetheless, a few structural characteristics areobvious. First, the division of Psalms into five books seems toreflect the fivefold division of the Pentateuch:

I.Book 1 (Pss. 1–41)

II.Book 2 (Pss. 42–72)

III.Book 3 (Pss. 73–89)

IV.Book 4 (Pss. 90–106)

V.Book 5 (Pss. 107–150)

Eachbook ends with a doxology. Such an intentional association with thePentateuch would lend support to the Psalter’s claim toauthority. Although these are prayers to God, they are also God’sword.

Second,within the Psalter there are subcollections. That is, there arepsalms that came into the book not individually but as a group. Thebest-known such group are the Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134),probably so named because worshipers sang them while going up(ascending) to the Temple Mount during one of the annual religiousfestivals in Jerusalem.

Third,it appears that psalms are intentionally placed at the beginning andat the end of the book to serve as an introduction and a conclusion.Psalms 1–2 serve as an introduction that alerts the reader tothe twin important themes of law and messiah. Psalm 1 pronounces ablessing on those who love God’s law. The psalms, after all,are an intimate and personal conversation with God. One must be onthe side of the godly to enter such a holy textual space, just as onemust be godly to enter the precincts of the temple. After the readerenters, Psalm 2 provides an encounter with God and his anointed one(messiah). At the end of the book, the last five psalms (Pss.146–150) constitute a tremendous doxology of praise.

Thisleads to the final observation on structure. Psalms of lamentpredominate at the beginning of the book, but they give way to hymnsof praise toward the end. It is almost as if one enters the Psaltermourning and leaves it praising. Indeed, the Psalter brings thereader into contact with God and thus transforms the reader fromsadness to joy.

LiteraryConsiderations

Genre.The individual psalms may be identified as songs, prayers, or poems.Specifically, they are lyric poems (expressing the emotions of thepoet), often addressed to God, and set to musical accompaniment.Although the categories overlap, seven different types of psalms canbe recognized, with the first three being by far the most common.

• Lament.The largest single group of psalms are the laments, characterized bythe expression of unhappy emotions: sadness, disappointment, anger,worry. The lamenters call on God to save them, even while at timescomplaining about God’s actions toward them (Ps. 42:9–10).Some laments contain petitions for forgiveness (Ps. 51), while othersassert innocence of any wrongdoing (Ps. 26). A few laments evencontain curses directed toward the enemies who are trying to harm thepsalmist (Ps. 69:19–28). Most laments end by praising God orreaffirming confidence in God (Ps. 130:7–8). Usually the reasonfor the change from mourning to rejoicing is not given, but Ps. 77pinpoints the reason as the memory of God’s great salvationevents in the past (vv. 10, 16–20). One psalm, Ps. 88, lamentsbut never makes the turn, remaining in the pit of despair. Yet evenhere we have a glimmer of hope in that the one who laments is stillspeaking to God.

• Thanksgiving.When God answers a lament, the response is thanksgiving. Psalms ofthanksgiving are very similar to hymns (see below), but they cite anearlier problem that God has addressed. Psalm 30 praises God forrestoring the psalmist’s good fortune and health after hesuffered due to his earlier arrogance that led him to forget God (vv.6–7).

• Hymn.Hymns are psalms of unalloyed praise directed toward God. Thepsalmists often call for others to join their worship of God (Ps.100).

• Remembrance.While many psalms evoke memories of God’s actions in the past(as the lament in Ps. 77 recalls the exodus), certain psalms focus onrehearsing the actions of God in the past. Psalm 136 is one of themost memorable examples. As a liturgical psalm, it recites a divineaction (“[God] swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea”[v.15]) followed by a congregational response (“His loveendures forever”).

• Confidence.These psalms are defined by their mood of quiet trust in God even inthe midst of trouble. They often present a reassuring image of God.The picture of God as a shepherd in Ps. 23 or as a mother in Ps. 131are good examples.

• Wisdom.Some psalms meditate on the law (Pss. 1; 119) or have interestssimilar to those of wisdom literature, such as Job, Proverbs, andEcclesiastes (Pss. 49; 73).

• Kingship.A number of psalms praise God as king (Ps. 47) or the human king ashis agent (Pss. 20–21) or both (Ps.2).

Style.The psalms are poems, and so their style is characterized by the useof parallelism and figurative language. Poetry is also notable forits short lines. A poet packs a lot of meaning into very few words.So it is important to slow down and reflect on a psalm in order toderive its maximum effect. Besides brevity of expression,parallelism, and figurative language, poets create interest by usingother literary tools. The psalmists use these poetic devices not onlyto inform their readers’ intellect but also to stimulate theirimagination and arouse their emotions. (See also Acrostic; Imagery;Poetry.)

TheologicalMessage

Althoughthe psalms are not theological essays, readers can learn about Godand their relationship with God from these poems. The book of Psalmsis a bit like a portrait gallery of God, using images to describe whohe is and the nature of our relationship with him. Some examplesinclude God as shepherd (Ps. 23), king (Ps. 47), warrior (Ps. 98),and mother (Ps. 131), and the list could be greatly expanded. Eachone of these picture images casts light on the nature of God and alsothe nature of our relationship with God. After all, theaforementioned psalms explicitly or implicitly describe God’speople as sheep, subjects, soldiers, and children.

Connectionto the New Testament and Today

Jesushimself draws attention to Psalms as a book that anticipated hiscoming suffering and glorification (Luke 24:25–27, 44). TheGospels recognized that Jesus’ zeal for God was well expressedby Ps. 69:9 (John 2:17). When at the apex of his suffering on thecross, Jesus uttered the words found in Ps. 22:1 (Matt. 27:46). TheNT writers also saw that Jesus was the fulfillment of the covenantthat promised that a son of David would have an everlasting throne(2Sam. 7:16). Accordingly, the royal psalms (e.g., Pss. 2; 110)often were applied to Jesus, who is the Messiah (the Christ, “theanointed one”).

Todaywe read Psalms not only as an ancient witness to the coming work ofChrist but also, as John Calvin put it, as a mirror of our souls. Thepsalms were written for worshipers who came after them with similarthough not identical joys and problems. The psalms should becomemodels of our prayers.

Whether animal or human, “creature” assumescreator. God’s unique creative activity is showcased in hismajestic work: “creatures” (Heb. bar’a, “tocreate” [Gen. 1:1, 27]; Heb. nepesh hayah, “livingcreature” [Gen. 1:24; cf. 2:7]). While the infinite God is notconfined in the lives of his creatures, both are linked in arelationship of fidelity (Ps. 104).

Acreature is a gift and has an obligation of service (Ps. 150).Scripture celebrates divine rule and creaturely dependence (Ps. 96).Creatures have roles, and the liturgy of doxology revels in a cosmicand eschatological drama (Ps. 148; Isa. 40:12–31; 65:17–25).Humans are caretaking creatures (Ps. 8).

A hymn or salutation praising God, often sung or chanted in the opening or closing portions of a Christian worship service. A doxology may also be written and often is found in books or letters written by Christians. Although the term “doxology” does not appear in the original scriptural texts, it subsequently was added as a descriptive header for certain sections of Scripture, including Rom. 11:33–36; Jude 24–25; Rev. 1:4–6.

The words spoken by the heavenly host in announcing Jesus’ birth to the shepherds, “Glory to God in the highest heaven, and on earth peace to those on whom his favor rests” (Luke 2:14), are known as the Greater Doxology. The words “Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit; as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be, world without end, Amen,” though not found in the Scriptures, are known as the Lesser Doxology.

Similar phrases of exaltation and praise certainly exist in the OT, though they have not been specifically categorized as doxologies. One example is the psalmist’s praise “Lord, our Lord, how majestic is your name in all the earth!” (Ps. 8:1, 9).

In the Bible, gestures are made with either parts of the bodyor items, such as clothing and rings, directly connected to the body.For this reason, it makes sense to classify biblical gestures inrelation to the different body parts that are identified with thegestures. It is, however, challenging to know where to draw a line onclassifying a gesture. For example, a devious person is described inProv. 6:13 as one “who winks maliciously with his eye, signalswith his feet and motions with his fingers.” It is unclearwhether this is a single gesture or multiple ones, and whether allsignify different things or the same thing.

Head

Gesturesthat relate to the head range from simple head motions to semiviolentacts such as hair pulling. Simple head motions include lifting ofone’s head in honor (Gen. 40:13), bowing one’s head inmourning (Ps. 35:14), tossing one’s head in mockery andderision (2Kings 19:21), and shaking one’s head as insult(Ps. 22:7; Mark 15:29).

Acommon action is the shaving of the head, which can be forpurification (Lev. 14:8–9; Num. 6:9; 8:7 [includes all bodyhair]), mourning (Deut. 21:11–13; Job 1:20; Isa. 15:2; Jer.16:6; 47:5; 48:37; Ezek. 27:31; Amos 8:10; Mic. 1:16), remorse (Jer.41:5), or shaming (Jer. 2:16). However, priests are forbidden fromshaving their heads even in mourning (Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20), whilethe high priest is to wear a turban on his head during sacrificialduties (Exod. 29:6).

Anointingof the head is done when a priest or king is installed (Exod. 29:7;Ps. 23:5) or simply as a sign of God’s goodness and blessing ona person (Eccles. 9:8). Blessing may also involve placing a hand onthe head of the person being blessed (Gen. 48:14–18; Exod.29:19), while the same gesture on the head of sacrificial animals isa symbolic means of transferring sin (Lev. 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24,29, 33; 8:18, 22).

Inthe OT, a woman’s head can be shaved in mourning (Deut.21:12–13; cf. Jer. 47:5), but in the NT, a shaved head can be acause for disgrace (1Cor. 11:5–6).

Face.Facial gestures range from expressions to actions such as touching orcovering the face. A face can be downcast in anger (Gen. 4:5–6)or bowed to the ground in honor (Gen. 48:12), in dejection (Josh.7:6), in humility (Ruth 2:10), in worship (2Chron. 20:18; Ps.138:2), in subjection, supplication, reverence (1Sam. 20:41;25:41; 28:14; 2Sam. 14:4, 22; 18:28; 24:20; 1Kings 1:23;1Chron. 21:20), or in dread (e.g., Moses before Yahweh [Exod.3:6]).

Theface can be covered or veiled as an indication of uncleanness (Lev.13:45), in grief/mourning (2Sam. 19:4; Ezek. 24:17), inresignation (1Kings 19:13), with intent to deceive in adultery(Job 24:15), or in horror of judgment (Esther 7:8; Ezek. 12:6, 12).It can also be buried in the dust in remorse (Lam. 3:29).

Godcan be described as hiding or turning away his face againstwickedness and evil (Deut. 31:18; 32:20; Ps. 34:16; Isa. 8:17; Jer.33:5; Ezek. 7:22; 15:7; 20:46; 21:2) or in an act of withholdingblessings (Job 13:15; Pss. 10:1; 13:1; 27:9; 30:7; 34:16; Isa. 54:8;59:2; 64:7). God can also turn his face toward a place in judgment(Ezek. 4:3, 7; 6:2). In 1Sam. 5:3–4 the idol of thePhilistine god Dagon falls facedown before the ark of the covenant,apparently overpowered by Yahweh.

Actsof humiliation or dishonor can involve spitting in the face (Num.12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10; Isa. 50:6), slapping the face(1Kings 22:24; 2Chron. 18:23; Job 16:10; Lam. 3:30; Mic.5:1), pulling a skirt up over someone’s face in shamingjudgment (Jer. 13:26; Nah. 3:5), and hooking and dragging someone bythe nose (2Kings 19:28). Although being struck on the cheek ishumiliating, Jesus instructs his disciples to “turn the othercheek” as a sign of resistance to violence (Matt. 5:39; Luke6:29).

Onecan lift one’s face in worship (2Kings 20:2; Job 22:26;Isa. 38:2) or in confidence (Job 11:15) and can fail to lift it inshame and disgrace (Ezra 9:6). Although the shaving of beards inmourning is common practice (Ezra 9:3; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37),the forced shaving of beards is an act of shaming and insulting(2Sam. 10:4; 1Chron. 19:4–5; Isa. 7:20; 50:6).

Eyes.Winking the eye is perceived as an evil, deceptive, or malicious act(Ps. 35:19; Prov. 6:13; 16:30). Eyes can be lifted up in worship andexpectation (Pss. 121:1; 123:1).

Mouth.Pursed lips can characterize an evil person (Prov. 16:30), while ahand can be clapped over the mouth in awe and submission (Job 21:5;40:4). Psalm 72:9 looks to the righteous king before whom the deserttribes will bow and whose “enemies lick the dust” indefeat.

Ears.An Israelite slave for life is to have a hole punched through his orher earlobe, held against a doorpost, with an awl (Exod. 21:6; Deut.15:17). Blood is sprinkled on the lobe of the right ear forpurification (Exod. 29:20; Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17), whilesupplication can be described as asking for the turning of an ear(2Kings 19:16; Ps. 31:2). Turning one’s ear signifiespaying attention or taking something to heart (Ps. 49:4; Prov. 4:20;5:13).

Neck.The neck can be adorned (Song 1:10) as a sign of pride and honor(Gen. 41:42; Judg. 5:30; Prov. 1:9; Ezek. 16:11) or outstretched inarrogance (Ps. 75:5 TNIV: “Do not lift your horns againstheaven; do not speak with outstretched neck”). Jeremiah put ayoke on his neck as a prophetic sign of the approaching Babylonianconquest (Jer. 27–28). While putting someone’s neck in ayoke is an act of triumphal conquest (Ps. 105:18), stepping on theneck of a subdued enemy is an act of subjugation and humiliation(Josh. 10:24).

Body

Nakednessin public is considered shameful (Gen. 9:22–23; Nah. 3:5; Rev.3:18), so that it is sometimes pictured as part of divine judgment(Deut. 28:48; Isa. 47:2–3; Lam. 1:8; Mic. 1:11) or as a sign ofpromiscuity (Isa. 57:8; Ezek. 16:36). An unkempt body can be a signof mourning, as it is for Mephibosheth (2Sam. 19:24). A certainkind of body covering is a sign of marriage proposal or protection(Ezek. 16:8; 23:18; Hos. 2:9). Body dismembering, even in war, is anact of humiliation (2Sam. 4:12).

Chest.In self-mortification, one can pound one’s chest in mourning(Ezek. 21:12) or in remorse (Jer. 31:19; Luke 18:13). The breasts ofsacrificial animals are waved before God as a “wave offering”before being eaten (Exod. 29:26; Lev. 7:30; Num. 6:20).

Hand,arm.Hand gestures include motions such as lifting hands in worship,clapping hands in joy, and clapping a hand over one’s mouth inawe. The expression “outstretched arm” (Exod. 6:6; Deut.4:34; 5:15; 7:19; 9:29; 11:2; 26:8; 1Kings 8:42; 2Kings17:36; 2Chron. 6:32; Ps. 136:12; Jer. 21:5; 27:5; 32:17, 21;Ezek. 20:33–34) indicates power, might, strength. It is oftenused of God to indicate his ability to defeat powerful armies andenemies. God is implored by the psalmist to lift his hand and act forthe sake of the righteous (Ps. 10:12).

Sincethe right hand is the hand of power, the act of sitting at the righthand indicates being favored (1Kings 2:19; Ps. 110:1; Matt.22:44; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:43; Acts 2:35; Heb. 1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2;1Pet. 3:22). When taking an oath, one places a hand under thethigh/crotch (Gen. 24:2; 47:29), most likely the right hand (see Gen.48:14, 17–18; Lev. 8:23; 14:14).

Clappingthe hands can be a sign of awe (Ezek. 6:11), malice, or remorse(25:6), while a bared arm can be a sign of judgment (4:7). Job clapshis hand over his mouth in awe of God and in submission andrepentance (Job 40:4–5).

Handscan be lifted in worship (1Kings 8:22; 1Tim. 2:8), tobeseech (Ps. 28:2), to protect and bless (Ps. 10:12), in an oath(Deut. 32:40), or to harm (Exod. 24:11; 1Sam. 24:6, 10;2Sam.1:14; 18:12).

Pilatewashes his hands to proclaim his innocence over the death of Jesus(Matt. 27:24), while 1Pet. 5:6 urges believers to humblethemselves “under God’s mighty hand,” so that indue time they will be lifted up.

Buttocks.Exposure of the buttocks can serve as a humiliating insult andprovocation, as happens to David’s men (2Sam. 10:4;1Chron. 19:4) and Egyptian and Cush*te captives (Isa. 20:4).

Leg.The leg or thigh is often a euphemism for the male reproductiveorgans, so that putting one’s hand under a thigh in oath (Gen.24:2; 47:29) may involve actually grabbing the genitalia. Animalthighs are waved to God in offering before being consumed (Lev. 9:21;10:14; Num. 6:20), while oaths administered to uncover adultery causea guilty woman’s thighs to waste (Num. 5:2–27).

Themost common gesture involving the knee is bowing, in worship orreverence (Deut. 33:3; Isa. 45:23; Rom. 11:4; 14:11; Phil. 2:10), indefeat (2Sam. 22:40; Ps. 18:38; Isa. 60:14), in distress (Ps.57:6), or in respect (1Kings 1:31). In what seems to be asomewhat awkward position, Elijah puts his face between his knees inprayer (1Kings 18:42).

Feet.Gestures involving the feet are probably the most common gestures inthe Bible. Feet can be washed in hospitality (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24:32;43:24; 1Sam. 25:41), in ablution (Exod. 30:19, 21; 40:31), orin supplication (1Sam. 25:41). Feet can be bathed in oil as ablessing (Deut. 33:24), uncovered in marriage proposals (Ezek. 16:8;cf. Ruth 3:4, 7), and stamped in remorse (Ezek. 25:6), and sandalscan be removed from them in honor (Exod. 3:1–10) or disgrace(Deut. 25:9). The heavenly seraphs cover their feet in supplicationbefore the throne of God (Isa. 6:2), while the feet of humans cansignal deception (Prov. 6:13).

Enemiescan be placed under one’s feet in subjugation (1Kings5:3; Pss. 8:6; 18:39; 45:5; 47:3; 110:1; Mal. 4:3; Rom. 16:20), havetheir feet shackled or ensnared (Job 13:27; 33:11; Pss. 25:15;105:18), and be forced to lick the feet of victors in humiliation anddefeat (Isa. 49:23). The righteous will bathe their feet in the bloodof their enemies in revenge (Pss. 58:10; 68:23).

Thoseoverwhelmed can grovel at the feet of the powerful (2Kings4:27, 37; Esther 8:3; Matt. 28:9; Mark 5:33; 7:25; Acts 10:25), whilethose emboldened can rise to their feet in confidence (Ezek. 2:1–2;3:24; Dan. 8:18).

Inthe NT, dust can be shaken off one’s feet as an indication ofdivine judgment (Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Luke 9:5), even as lying ata person’s feet is a recognition of authority/submission (Matt.15:30; Mark 5:33; Luke 8:28, 35, 41, 47; 10:39; 17:16; Acts 4:37;5:2). A woman publicly washes Jesus’ feet with her tears, wipesthem with her hair, and kisses and perfumes them in what seems an actof love and repentance; but Jesus indicates that she has prepared hisbody for burial (Luke 7:38–46; John 11:2; 12:3). Jesus washeshis disciples’ feet as instruction on servanthood anddiscipleship (John 13:5–14).

Fingers,Toes.Different fingers seem to have different roles assigned them. Afinger sprinkles blood in cleansing (Lev. 4:6, 17, 25, 30, 34; 8:15;9:9; 14:16; 16:14, 19; Num. 19:4), while blood on the tip of theright thumb and on the right big toe is for cleansing (Exod. 29:20;Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17, 25, 28).

Onewears a signet ring as a sign of power (Esther 3:10) or a gesture ofrestoration and forgiveness (Luke 15:22). But fingers can also motionin deception (Prov. 6:13) or point in blame (Isa. 58:9). Jesus writeswith his finger on the ground, apparently as a gesture ofindifference to those pointing accusing fingers (John 8:6).

Clothesand Shoes

Garments.Garments attain significance as they are related to specificemotions. Wearing sackcloth and ashes in mourning is common (Gen.37:34; Ezek. 7:18; 2Sam. 3:31), while ripping garments inmourning is also frequently attested (Gen. 37:34; 44:13; Lev. 10:6;21:10; Josh. 7:6; 2Sam. 1:11; 3:31; 13:31; 1Kings 21:27;2Kings 2:12; 19:1; Esther 4:1; Isa. 32:11; 37:1; Jer. 41:5).

Rippingsomeone’s clothing to expose nakedness (Ezek. 16:39; 2Sam.10:4) or pulling a person’s skirts up over the face (Jer.13:26) is an act of shaming or insulting. But tearing one’sclothes off can be a sign of fury (Matt. 26:65). Persons withdefiling diseases are expected to warn off others by wearing tornclothes and shouting, “Unclean! Unclean!” (Lev. 13:45).

Bylaying their clothes at Saul’s feet, the crowd may beacknowledging his authority in the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58).

Sandals.A woman can remove a man’s sandal in contempt (Deut. 25:5–10),while a sandal can be removed by a kinsman-redeemer to indicategiving up a right or as a transfer of property (Ruth 4:7–8). Asandal can also be removed in mourning (Ezek. 24:17) or be cast overa piece of land to claim ownership (Pss. 60:8; 108:9).

PropheticGestures

Propheticgestures in the OT are mostly concerned with the call to repentanceand approaching judgments upon failure to heed the warning. Jeremiahputs a yoke on his neck (Jer. 27–28; cf. Deut. 28:48), Ezekielcooks with dung (Ezek. 4:12) and sleeps on his left side for 390 daysand then on his right side for 40 days (4:5–6), Isaiah stripsoff his clothing (Isa. 20:2–3; 32:11), and Hosea marries anunfaithful wife (Hos. 1:1–3).

Inthe NT, Jesus cleanses the temple as an act of symbolic judgment(Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15). He also breaks bread and drinkswine (Matt. 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; 24:30, 35; Acts 2:46;20:11; 27:35; 1Cor. 11:24–25) and washes his disciples’feet (John 13:1–13), thereby establishing symbolic Christianpractices.

Whereas the Greeks identified the good as an abstract idealtoward which people should strive in all their actions, the Bibleidentifies goodness as an attribute of God, who is personal (Ps.25:8–10). Therefore, God is the ultimate standard of goodness.

Creationitself expresses God’s goodness. Human beings are fearfully andwonderfully made (Ps. 139:14). We have been given the capacity toenjoy the many blessings of God’s creation (Ps. 145:9, 16), andto bring the potentialities of creation to their full expression bycultivating and subduing the earth (Gen. 1:28; Ps. 8). We are createdin God’s image to do good by living according to God’spurposes. Evil came into the world when Adam and Eve looked tosomething in creation instead of God as the source of ultimate good(Gen.3).

Inhis goodness, God has chosen goodness. If we were to shine God’sgoodness through a prism, its color spectrum would include love,mercy, grace, kindness, faithfulness, righteousness, beauty, andperfection to redeem his people, who have lost their capacity forgood through sin. Jesus is the good shepherd who lays down his lifefor his sheep (John 10:11). God showers his benevolence upon both theevil and the good (Matt. 5:45). For believers, God uses everything,even their suffering, to bring about their good, namely,Christlikeness (Rom. 8:28–29).

That humankind has been created in the image of God indicatesits unique status above the animals because of a special similaritywith God. This status authorizes humankind to rule the earth andrequires respect toward people. The particulars of what the phrase“image of God” means have been understood in many ways.

Thephrase is rather rare. It first appears in Gen. 1:26–27, andthe same or similar phrases occur in five more verses (Gen. 5:1, 3;9:6; 1Cor. 11:7; James 3:9) that refer back to it. The NT alsorefers to Christ as the image of God and to believers becoming likethe image of Christ.

UnderstandingGenesis 1:26–27

Thismakes Gen. 1:26–27 the starting point for understanding thephrase. Several factors come into play: the contrast with thecreation of animals on the same day; the connection with humankindruling the other creatures; other elements of the broader context;the meaning of the words “image” (tselem) and “likeness”(demut); the meaning of the preposition “in”; and themeaning and use of images in the ancient Near East.

Inthe immediately preceding context, animals are made “accordingto their kinds,” whereas humans are made “in the image ofGod.” The context directly following also makes a distinctionbetween the two, granting humans rule, or dominion, over the animals.Being in the image of God certainly involves what makes humans uniquein contrast to the rest of the animal kingdom.

Thehistory of interpretation of the phrase “image of God” islong and voluminous. Just about anything from the broader contextthat seems important to the interpreter might be selected as the keymeaning; or whatever philosophical system is dominant at the timewhen the interpreter writes might be tapped as the “obvious”explanation of what being in the image of God means; or perhaps theinsights of a particular academic discipline or systematictheological system might be given preference. Thus, the meaning ofbeing created in the image of God has been associated with manythings, such as language, eternal soul, rationality, relationality,being male and female (often compared to the Trinity), physicalappearance, dominion, and personhood. The wide variety is possiblebecause the text of Scripture does not spell it out, and the optionsseem reasonable to their various proponents as explaining theuniqueness of humanity, something that clearly serves the context.

Althoughmany of these insights may be reasonable and relevant, it can beproblematic to select one as the key element. For example, to supportthe suggestion that being in the image of God means walking erect ontwo feet, one could point out that (1)humankind’s“walking” is in the broader context, (2)humanbeings “walking” with God uniquely contrasts to thecirc*mstances of other animals, and (3)standing erect on twofeet is a dominance move in the animal kingdom. But this is unlikelyto be convincing to anyone, for good reason. And the many optionsoffered by interpreters often look equally out of place fromanother’s perspective. For example, the text emphasizes thatGod created them “male and female,” a unity with adifference. God is a trinity, a unity with a difference. Is this,then, the image of God? Someone might point out that the animals arealso male and female, and that the text does not necessarily have theTrinity in view (there are other explanations for the plural “us”in Gen. 1:26, which many consider better explanations).

Studyingthe words “image” and “likeness” does notquickly clarify the issue. “Image” normally refers to astatue, typically of a god. And “likeness” normallyrefers to similar physical appearance. The true God is a spirit,lacking a particular physical form, and he forbids making a statue ofhimself. If the three-dimensional human physique is not the point,what remains of the terms “image” and “likeness”is simply some notion of similarity. It is this vagueness that haspromoted diverse understandings.

Thepreposition “in” is also much discussed, for it mightmean “in” or “as.” Thus humanity is perhapsmade in a like appearance to God, or in an unspecified similarity toGod. Or humanity has been created as God’s image on the earth.The first emphasizes what humanity is (being), the second whathumanity is to do (function). Yet the two, being and function,certainly are related, so the difference between them may beoverstated.

Thesurrounding cultures of the ancient Near East made images of theirgods. They believed not that the statue actually was the god butrather that it invoked the presence of the god and represented thegod to the people as a central location for interaction. TheBabylonian word for “image” is similar to the Hebrew andalso usually refers to a statue or artistic representation. It issometimes used figuratively about a king being the image of a god.And in Egypt we find the idea that humanity is the image of gods.This conceptual backdrop aligns with an understanding that being inthe image of God relates to the function of ruling.

Additionally,the phrase “and let them rule over” occurs in a sequencethat can indicate purpose or result. Thus, the passage may berendered, “Let us make man as our image, as our likeness, sothat they may rule.” That is, God set up human beings with adistinct nature for a distinct task, which he expressly includes whenblessing them (Gen. 1:28). We might still infer from generalrevelation some of the details that are relevant to that uniqueness,but we should avoid elevating them in importance.

OtherBiblical Passages

Thepassages that refer back to Gen. 1:26–27 emphasize honor andrespect for human individuals. Humans are to dominate the earth, notone another. They should not kill one another; otherwise they becomesubject to the death penalty (Gen. 9:6), and they should not curseothers but instead treat them with honor (James 3:9). But the motifhas no real prominence other than being in the beginning of theBible. After Gen. 9:6, the OT does not use the phrase “image ofGod.” The concept of human rule appears (e.g., Ps. 8), but theexpression “image of God” is more a subpoint under alarger topic than it is a heading for biblical teaching.

Inthe NT, Jesus is twice identified by the Greek equivalent to theHebrew phrase “image of God” (2Cor. 4:4; Col.1:15). Especially in the context of Col. 1:15, the emphasis is onChrist’s deity and so part of a different topic, despite thesimilar wording. The two verses about believers that refer to thelikeness of God and the image of the Creator (Col. 3:10; Eph. 4:24)deal with moral behavior and the sanctification of the believer (cf.Rom. 8:29; 2Cor. 3:18). Although they do not directly refer toGen. 1, they do address the common metaphor that humankind, bysinning, marred its imaging of God. To be conformed to the image ofChrist restores how humanity images God in the world.

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

The study of human beings, their nature and origins. TheChristian understanding of anthropology stems from a biblical view ofhumankind’s relationship to God.

TheOrigin of Humankind

Accordingto Genesis, the creation of humankind took place on the sixth day ofthe creation week. The amount of narrative space allotted to this day(Gen. 1:24–31) testifies to the special importance of whathappened. Human beings were made on the same day as the animals.Human beings were not given a day of their own, showing that theyhave a certain kinship with the animals, although they are far morethan highly successful and adaptive mammals. This has implicationsfor the care of animals and of the environment generally. The valueof human beings and their special place in the created order is clearin passages such as Pss. 8:5–6; 104:14–15.

Createdin the image of God.Whenit came to the making of human beings, God deliberated over thiscrucial step (Gen. 1:26). The plural of exhortation in “Let usmake man in our image” signals that the decision to makehumankind was the most important one that God had made so far.Genesis 1 says that human beings are like God in some way.

Variousopinions have been canvassed as to what the “image” is.We cannot totally exclude the physical form of humans, given God’shumanoid form in OT appearances (theophanies; e.g., Isa. 6:1; Ezek.1:26; Amos 9:1). The image has sometimes been interpreted as a task,the exercising of dominion (Gen. 1:28), with humanity appointed ascreation’s king, ruling under God. But the image is betterunderstood as the precondition for rule rather than rule itself. Theimage shows human worth (Gen. 9:6) and differentiates humans from allother creatures. It is proper for the Bible to use anthropomorphiclanguage for God, for humans are remarkably like God. Both male andfemale are in the image of God (“in the image of God he createdthem; male and female he created them” [1:27]), so that thedivine image is not maleness, nor is sexual differentiation theimage. Commonly, the image of God is thought to be some peculiarquality of human beings—for example, rationality, speech, moralsense, personality, humans as relational beings.

Everycentury has its own view of what is the essence of humanity. However,nothing in the passage allows a choice among such alternatives. Thepoint of the passage is simply the fact of the likeness, with noexact definition being provided. The fact of the image is the basisof the divine prohibition of murder and of the strict penalty appliedto the transgressor (9:4–6). The fall into sin affected everyaspect of the human constitution, and the Bible does not minimize thefact of human sinfulness (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Rom. 3:10–18);nevertheless, humans are still in the image of God (Gen. 5:1–3;9:6; 1 Cor. 11:7). God’s plan of salvation is aimed atridding creation (and especially humanity) of the baneful effects ofsin, and this will be achieved through the work of Christ, who is theimage of God (2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15–20; Heb. 1:1–3;2:5–18). The outcome will be the conformity of believers inChrist to his glorious image (Rom. 8:29–30; 2 Cor. 3.18).

Placein the created order.God’s purpose in giving human beings the divine image is “sothey may rule” (NET [Gen. 1:26b translated as a purposeclause]). The syntax suggests that the image is a presupposition ofdominion. It is plain that such a delegated authority makes humansstewards. The vegetarian diet of Gen.1:29 (there was no eating ofmeat at first) represents a limitation to the human right ofdominion. Adam’s naming of the animals was (in part) expressiveof his sovereignty over them (2:19). Later, Noah was charged to bringpairs of animals into the ark to preserve them alive (6:19–20),showing care for other creatures. The patriarchs tended flocks(13:2–9; 26:12–14), and Joseph’s relief measuressaved the lives of people and animals (47:15–18). The wantondestruction of the Promised Land was expressly forbidden (Deut.20:19–20). Humanity is accountable to God for the stewardshipof the earth. The divine command “be fruitful and multiply”(Gen. 1:28 NRSV) shows that God’s purpose is that the humanrace populate the whole earth.

AtGen. 2:7 the biblical narrative becomes thoroughly anthropocentric,picturing the little world that God establishes around the first man,so this account is quite different from the cosmic presentation ofGen. 1. In Gen. 1 humankind is the apex of a pyramid, the last andhighest of a series of creatures; in Gen. 2 the man is the center ofa circle, everything else made to fit around him, and his connectionto the physical earth is emphasized. In either view, a very specialplace is given to human beings in the created order. The two picturesare complementary, not contradictory.

The“man” (’adam) is formed from the “ground”(’adamah), with the related Hebrew words making a pun. Man’sname reminds him of his earthy origins. He is made from the “dust,”which hints at his coming death. He will return to the dust (Gen.3:19; cf. Job 10:8–9; Ps. 103:14; Isa. 29:16). The reference to“the breath of life” (Gen. 2:7) is due to the fact thatthis leaves a person at death (Job 34:14–15; Ps. 104:29–30),so man’s (potential) mortality is implied. Ironically, themaking of man is described using the language of death. What isdescribed in Gen. 2 is the making of the first man, from whom therest of the human race has descended, not the making of humankind,though the word ’adam can mean that in other contexts.

TheNature of Humankind

Body,soul, and spirit.Arguments over whether human nature is bipartite (body and soul) ortripartite (body, soul, spirit) are not to be decided by arbitraryappeal to isolated verses. Verses can be found in apparent supportfor both the first view (e.g., Matt. 10:28) and the second (e.g.,1 Thess. 5:23), but certainly the first scheme is much moreprevalent in the Bible. “Soul” and “spirit”can be used interchangeably (Eccles. 3:21; 12:7; Ezek. 18:31). Deathis marked by the parting of soul/spirit and body, but it would be amistake to think that human beings are made up of separate componentparts, or that the physical body is only a dispensable shell and notessential to true humanity. The physicality of human existence in the“body” is owned and celebrated in Scripture, part of thatbeing the positive attitude to sexuality when properly expressed(Song of Songs; 1 Cor. 7) and the nonascetic nature of biblicalethics (1 Cor. 10:31; Col. 2:23). The doctrine of theresurrection of the body is the fullest expression of this (1 Cor.15), in contrast to ancient Greek thought that viewed the body asinherently evil and understood salvation as the immortality of theliberated, disembodied soul.

Thedifferent words used in relation to persons are only intended torefer to and at times focus on different aspects of unified humannature. References to the “soul” may stress individualresponsibility (e.g., Ezek. 18:4 NASB: “The soul who sins willdie”). In Ps. 103:1–2, “O my soul” expressesemphatic self-encouragement to praise God and is in parallel with“all my inmost being”—that is, “my wholebeing” (an example of synecdoche: a part standing for the whole[cf. Ps. 35:10]). These are ways of referring to oneself as a personwho expresses will and intention (cf. Ps. 42:5–6, 11). The“flesh” is used to stress the weakness of mortal humanity(e.g., Isa. 40:6 RSV: “All flesh is grass”). The “heart”is the volitional center of a human being (Prov. 4:23; cf. Mark7:17–23). The emotional and empathetic reactions of humans aredescribed by reference to the organs: “liver,” “kidneys,”“bowels.”

Moralsand responsibility.In Gen. 2 the complexities of the man’s moral relation to Godand his relations with the soil, with the animals, and with the womanare explored. God deposited the man in the garden “to work itand take care of it” (2:15). The words chosen to designate theman’s work prior to the fall have an aura of worship aboutthem, for they are later used in the OT for the cultic actions ofserving and guarding within the sanctuary. The priests served byoffering sacrifices, and the Levites guarded the gates of the sacredprecinct. A theology of work as a religious vocation is presented.The man was a kind of king-priest in the garden of God.

Themoral responsibility of humanity is signaled from the beginning.God’s command gives permission for the man to eat from “anytree” except one (Gen. 2:16–17) and as such indicatesman’s freedom, so that this command is no great restriction.The wording “you are free to eat” reinforces the pointabout God’s generous provision. The prohibition is embedded inthe description of God’s fatherly care for the man and graciousact in placing him in the garden. The divine restriction is slightand not at all overbearing, though the serpent will seek to make itappear mean-spirited (3:1). The command and prohibition are the veryfirst words of God to the man, marking them out as of fundamentalimportance for the relationship between them. The prohibition (“youmust not eat . . .”) is an absolute one in thestyle of the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1–17; Deut. 5:6–21).What is placed before the man is a test that gives him theopportunity to express his loyalty to God. A relationship ofobedience and trust requires the possibility of choice and theopportunity to disobey (if that is what he wants to do). The moralnature and responsibility of individuals is not a late discovery bythe prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 18); rather, it is the presuppositionbehind the Mosaic law, for the commands of the Decalogue (“youshall not . . .”) are phrased as commands toindividuals (as the Hebrew makes clear). On the other hand, theconcept of corporate responsibility is also present (e.g., Achan’spunishment in Josh. 7).

Relationships.Human beings are relational by nature, as the creation of the womanas a helper and partner for the first man makes plain (Gen. 2:18–25).Later in Scripture this is put in more general terms, so thatfriendship and mutual cooperation are shown to be essential to life(Eccles. 4:7–12). The body life of the church reflects the samefact and need (1 Cor. 12). In Psalms, human needs andvulnerability find their answer and fulfillment in God, with thepsalmist acknowledging his frailty and his creaturely dependence onGod (e.g., Ps. 90). This also shows the folly of sinful human pride,against which the prophets so often inveighed (e.g., Isa. 2:9,11–17, 22).

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

The modern concept of “self-esteem” may haveroots in individualism, but Scripture conceives of it in relation toGod and community. Creation grounds positive self-regard in dignity,blessing, and authority bestowed by God (Gen. 1:26–28; Pss. 8;139:13–16), hence the concern that God preserve one fromoppression, illness, and shame (Ps. 71). Self-esteem is not absolute,unlimited self-regard, but rather a healthy valuing of oneself andothers as beloved, gifted by, and responsible to God (Rom. 12:3–8;contrast Ps. 14).

Self-esteemdraws strength from the community’s defining story. The peopleof Israel are commanded to teach their children their narrative ofpromise, oppression, and deliverance (Deut. 6), and prophetic wordsof divine assurance help restore the exiles’ corporateidentity, preparing them for return to the land (e.g., Isa. 54).Similarly, Jesus pledges the Father’s care for the disciples aspersons, forming them as a community and freeing them for lives oftrust and contentment as God’s beloved children (Luke 12:32–34;Phil. 4:10–20).

In the ancient world, shame and honor are two binaryopposites used to depict one’s status or behavior, which aculture approves or disapproves. The system of honor and shame servesas a primary means of social control. Thus, knowing how to act toconform to the code of social behavior expected by one’s groupis essential to the maintenance of that community.

Inthe Bible, the noun “honor” is representedby kabod (from the verb “to be heavy”) in the OT, and bytimē (from the verb “to honor”) in the NT. Thereverse of honor is shame, which is represented by a varietyof Hebrew and Greek terms, such as boshet in the OT, and aischynēin the NT.

InIsrael, the Holiness Code (Lev. 17–26; cf. Num. 5:2–3;8:6–7, 14–15) is comparable to the code of honor andshame. As a covenant community, Israel has the obligation to abide bythe sanction imposed by God to attain honor (Deut. 4:6–8;26:18–19; Pss. 34:5, 8–9; 37:18–19; 127:5; cf.2Chron. 26:18; Pss. 8:5; 62:7; 84:11; Rom. 2:7–11).Israel is honored (Exod. 32:11–12; Deut. 32:26–27) beforethe nations when God’s honor is upheld (Exod. 7:5; 10:1–2;14:4, 17–18). Violation of covenantal stipulations—forexample, deceptions in trading (Deut. 25:16), acts of “abomination”(Lev. 18:17, 22–23, 26–29), idolatry (Deut. 31:20;32:15–17), and failure to perform duties prescribed in the law(Deut. 25:7–10)—results in disgrace before others (Exod.32:25) and God (Deut. 28:25–26, 37).

Thestatus of honor can be ascribed to an individual. A person is morehonorable who is the firstborn (Gen. 49:3), comes from an esteemedfamily (Ps. 45:9), or is married into a dignified family (Gen. 41:45;Ruth 4:5). This worth will last a lifetime unless the reputation ofthe family is compromised, either because of economics (Ruth 1:1–21)or violation of the codes of conduct, such as adultery and incest(Exod. 20:14; Lev. 18:20; 20:10–21; Deut. 5:18; 22:22; Prov.6:32–33), though not necessarily divorce (Deut. 24:1–4).Certain groups of people are honored because of special privilegegranted to them (Prov. 8:15–16; Dan. 2:21; Rom. 13:1–5)—forexample, priests (Exod. 28:2, 40; Ps. 110:4; Heb. 7:21), kings (Ps.2:7), sages (Prov. 3:35), Israel (Exod. 19:6; Deut. 7:6; 8:11–9:7;26:16–19), and the church (1Pet. 2:9).

Wealthsymbolizes one’s status and claims respect for its owners (Gen.12:10–20; 14:21–24; 1Kings 3:13; Prov. 3:16; 8:18;22:4; Ps. 49:16; Isa. 61:6, 12) but does not equate the state ofbeing poor with shame (cf. Ps. 12:5) unless it is a result of morallassitude (Prov. 13:18). Parts of the human body symbolize worth andvalue. Certain parts of the body are less honorable than others, andto expose them is to invite disgrace (2Sam. 10:4–5;1Chron. 19:4; Isa. 20:4; 1Cor. 12:23–24).

Thestatus of honor can also be achieved by an individual’s merits(cf. Rom. 2:7–11). Certain types of behavior are honorable—forexample, humility (Prov. 15:33; 18:12; 29:23), taking care of one’smaster (Prov. 27:18), honoring parents (Exod. 20:12; 21:15; 22:28;Prov. 19:26; Mal. 1:6; Matt. 15:4; Eph. 6:2), good service (Gen.45:13), military exploits (2Sam. 23:19–23; cf. 2Chron.32:21), almsgiving and justice (Prov. 21:21). One important aspect ofachieving honor is the pursuit of wisdom. The ways of wisdom arehonorable (Prov. 3:16–17; 4:8; 8:18), preserving a person fromdishonor (Prov. 3:16–17, 31–33, 35; 24:14), but the waysof folly, such as injustice (Prov. 1:22; 14:31) and dishonoringparents (Prov. 30:17; cf. Exod. 20:12; 21:15; Lev. 20:9; Deut.27:16), are a disgrace (Prov. 20:3; 26:1). The failure to performone’s duty (Gen. 40:1–3) or a defeat in battle (Isa.23:9; Lam. 1:8; Nah. 3:10) results in shame and, accordingly, loss ofsocial status (Isa. 16:14; 23:9; Jer. 46:12; Lam. 1:6, 8; Hos. 4:7).An ultimate form of disgrace is to be hanged for public viewing(Deut. 21:22–23; Esther 5:14; 7:7–10; Matt. 27:32–44;Mark 15:22–32; Luke 23:33–43; John 19:17–24; 1Cor.1:18–25). In a patriarchal society, the status of women isobtained through their sexual exclusiveness. Their chastity (Gen.38:24; Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:13–21; cf. 2Sam. 13:13; Song8:8–9) and fertility (Gen. 16:2; 30:2; 1Sam. 1:3–8)become indicators of family and social worth.

In classical Greek, “world” (kosmos)communicated the idea that the external universe is a well-orderedsystem. In early Greek usage, the term was used with reference tospecific types of social orderings, such as the seating order ofrowers (Homer, Od. 13.77), the order of soldiers (Homer, Il. 12.225),and well-ordered political states such as Sparta (Herodotus, Hist.1.65).

CreatedWorld

Inthe OT, the notion of the created “world” departed fromthe Greek understanding specifically in that creation is never seenas an independent entity controlled by an impersonal, all-embracingorder. Rather, the universe, usually described with the phrase “theheavens and the earth” (Gen. 1:1; 2:1, 4; Ps. 113:6; Jer.10:11) or at times the “all” or “all things”(Ps. 103:19; Jer. 10:16), is always understood in its relationship toits creator: “He who created the heavens, he is God; he whofashioned and made the earth, he founded it; he did not create it tobe empty, but formed it to be inhabited—he says: ‘I amthe Lord, and there is no other’ ” (Isa. 45:18).Here, the “world” (“earth”) refers to thematerial elements that make up the planet (see also Jer. 32:17; Zech.12:1) and the sum total of the entire universe (cf. Acts 17:24). Evenin the account of creation in Gen. 1:1–2:4, where many of theelements of the physical world are mentioned (waters, firmament,stars, etc.), the primary intent of the account is to convey that Godis Lord over everything because he is the Creator. Often thesecreated elements that make up the world are praised not for their owninherent beauty, but as a testimony to the majesty, supremacy, andomnipotence of the Creator (Pss. 8; 19:1–6; 33:6–9). InPs. 148:3–6 the elements within the natural order (kosmos) areinstructed to praise God: “Praise him, sun and moon; praisehim, all you shining stars. Praise him, you highest heavens and youwaters above the skies. Let them praise the name of the Lord, for athis command they were created, and he established them for ever andever—he issued a decree that will never pass away.”

Thoughnot providing a comprehensive description, the OT does at times referto how the world is constructed as a whole. The “vault”(Gen. 1:6–20 [RSV: “firmament”]) of heavenseparates the waters above from the waters below (which arerestrained by God’s sovereign care [Gen. 1:7; 7:11; 49:25]),and this area or chamber rests on “pillars” (Job 26:11).At times the earth is described as a disc with the sanctuary as itscenter point (Judg. 9:37; Ezek. 38:12), which rests on pillars (Job9:6). There is an underworld, from which there is no return (Job10:21); however, the OT does not engage in the kind of speculationregarding the underworld as is evident in the Greco-Roman tradition.

Earthand Its Inhabitants

Theterm “world” conveys other nuances in the Bible. It oftenrefers to the inhabitants of the earth or the place of human life:“He rules the world in righteousness and judges the peopleswith equity” (Ps. 9:8 [cf. Pss. 96:13; 98:9]); or, “Comenear, you nations, and listen; pay attention, you peoples! Let theearth hear, and all that is in it, the world, and all that comes outof it!” (Isa. 34:1). Also, in the Gospels “world”is used in this way: “What good is it for someone to gain thewhole world, yet forfeit their soul?” (Mark 8:36). Matthew 4:8refers to all the kingdoms of the world. Also the expressions “cominginto the world” (John 1:9; 3:19), “in the world”(John 1:10; 2Cor. 1:12), and “leave this world”(1Cor. 5:10) can be understood as referring to the sphere ofhuman life.

UngodlyCulture and Worldview

“World”can also refer to something more than the material world or humanityin general; it can refer to the entire cultural value system or worldorder that is hostile toward God. The “world” is a commonbiblical way of referring to the ungodly worldview and lifestyle thatcharacterize human life in its rebellion against the Creator. Thecourse of the world is profoundly affected by fallen humans, throughwhom death came into the world and rules over it (Rom. 5:12).Therefore, Paul can claim that “the whole world” hasbecome guilty before God (Rom. 3:19), and even the created world isaffected by such rebellion (8:20–22). Paul especially links“this world” with “this age” (1Cor.3:19; 5:10; Eph. 2:2 NET), which God has judged (Rom. 3:6). Johndeclares that Satan is the “prince of this world” (John12:31; 14:30; 16:11). Paul refers to Satan as the “god of thisworld” (2Cor. 4:4 ESV, NRSV, NASB), who is able to blindindividuals to the truth and who animates human rebellion (Eph. 2:2).In this sense, God and the world are strictly separate: “Don’tyou know that friendship with the world means enmity against God?Therefore, anyone who chooses to be a friend of the world becomes anenemy of God” (James 4:4). Because of this call to an exclusiverelationship with God, believers are mandated to resist and evenconfront the world. Followers of Christ must not be taken captive byphilosophy or the “elemental spiritual forces of this world”(Col. 2:8, 20), since, as Paul says, “the worldhas beencrucified to me, and I to the world” (Gal. 6:14).

Butit is the world that designates the location and object of God’ssaving activity. Indeed, God sent his Son into this world in order toreconcile it to himself (2Cor. 5:19). Jesus, the sacrificialLamb of God, “takes away the sins of the world” (John1:29). Out of love for this world, God sent his Son (John 3:1), notto judge it but to save it: “God did not send his Son into theworld to condemn the world, but to save the world through him”(John 3:17).

Althoughbelievers live in the world (1Cor. 5:10; Phil. 2:15) and musthave dealings with the world, ultimately they are not of the world(John 17:14). Remaining in Christ, believers are able to demonstratein the world the belief and practice of the new commandment to love(John 13:34; 15:9). Therefore, Christians must maintain a criticaldistance from the world’s system: “Do not love the worldor anythingin the world. If anyone loves the world, love forthe Father is not in them. For everything inthe world—thelust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life—comesnot from the Father but from the world” (1John 2:15–16[cf. James 1:27; 4:4]). Believers are to avoid the seductive power ofthe world and not abandon themselves to it; they are to follow theirLord in proclaiming God’s project of reconciling the world tohimself through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (2Cor.5:18).